Net carbon flux from agriculture: Carbon emissions, carbon sequestration, crop yield, and land-use change

There is a potential to sequester carbon in soil by changing agricultural management practices. These changes in agricultural management can also result in changes in fossil-fuel use, agricultural inputs, and the carbon emissions associated with fossil fuels and other inputs. Management practices that alter crop yields and land productivity can affect the amount of land used for crop production with further significant implications for both emissions and sequestration potential. Data from a 20-year agricultural experiment were used to analyze carbon sequestration, carbon emissions, crop yield, and land-use change and to estimate the impact that carbon sequestration strategies might have on the net flux of carbon to the atmosphere. Results indicate that if changes in management result in decreased crop yields, the net carbon flux can be greater under the new system, assuming that crop demand remains the same and additional lands are brought into production. Conversely, if increasing crop yields lead to land abandonment, the overall carbon savings from changes in management will be greater than when soil carbon sequestration alone is considered.     

Climate drives global soil carbon sequestration and crop yield changes under conservation agriculture

Conservation agriculture has been shown to have multiple benefits for soils, crop yield and the environment, and consequently, no‐till, the central practice of conservation agriculture, has rapidly expanded. However, studies show that the potential for carbon (C) sequestration in no‐till farming sometimes is not realized, let alone the ability to maintain or improve crop yield. Here we present a global analysis of no‐till‐induced changes of soil C and crop yield based on 260 and 1,970 paired studies; respectively. We show that, relative to local conventional tillage, arid regions can benefit the most from conservation agriculture by achieving a win‐win outcome of enhanced C sequestration and increased crop yield. However, more humid regions are more likely to increase SOC only, while some colder regions have yield losses and soil C loss as likely as soil C gains. In addition to site‐specific characteristics and management, a careful assessment of the regional climate is needed to determine the potential benefits of adopting conservation agriculture.     

Responses of soil carbon sequestration to climate‐smart agriculture practices: A meta‐analysis

Climate‐smart agriculture (CSA) management practices (e.g., conservation tillage, cover crops, and biochar applications) have been widely adopted to enhance soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions while ensuring crop productivity. However, current measurements regarding the influences of CSA management practices on SOC sequestration diverge widely, making it difficult to derive conclusions about individual and combined CSA management effects and bringing large uncertainties in quantifying the potential of the agricultural sector to mitigate climate change. We conducted a meta‐analysis of 3,049 paired measurements from 417 peer‐reviewed articles to examine the effects of three common CSA management practices on SOC sequestration as well as the environmental controlling factors. We found that, on average, biochar applications represented the most effective approach for increasing SOC content (39%), followed by cover crops (6%) and conservation tillage (5%). Further analysis suggested that the effects of CSA management practices were more pronounced in areas with relatively warmer climates or lower nitrogen fertilizer inputs. Our meta‐analysis demonstrated that, through adopting CSA practices, cropland could be an improved carbon sink. We also highlight the importance of considering local environmental factors (e.g., climate and soil conditions and their combination with other management practices) in identifying appropriate CSA practices for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions while ensuring crop productivity.     

Soil Carbon Accumulation During Temperate Forest Succession on Abandoned Low Productivity Agricultural Lands

Carbon sequestration in soils that have previously been depleted of organic matter due to agriculture is an important component of global strategies to mitigate rising atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. Extensive areas of low productivity farmland have been abandoned from agriculture in eastern North America and elsewhere over the past century, and are naturally regenerating to temperate forests. We investigated the soil carbon sequestration potential of such lands by sampling adjacent mature forest and agricultural field sites, and replicated chronosequences of forest succession on Podzol, Brunisol, and Luvisol soil types that are considered ‘marginal’ for agriculture and have been abandoned extensively across southeastern Ontario, Canada. Total soil organic carbon and nitrogen stocks to 10 cm depth were approximately 32% and 18% lower, respectively, in agricultural fields compared to mature forests. Furthermore, carbon stocks across our 100-year chronosequences increased most within the 0–5 cm soil depth interval, tended to increase within the 5–10 cm interval, and were unaltered within the 10–20 cm interval. Soil type had little effect on the potential magnitude or rates of soil carbon sequestration (~10 g C m^?2 y^?1 in the top 10 cm), perhaps because all sites shared a common vegetation successional pattern. Finally, our investigations of the ‘labile’ free-light carbon and nitrogen fractions in the Brunisol soil type indicated no increases across the chronosequence, implying that soil carbon accumulation was primarily in more recalcitrant pools. Our results indicate that each of these low productivity soil types can be moderate carbon sinks for a century following agricultural abandonment, and strongly suggest that time since abandonment is more important than soil type in determining the potential magnitude of carbon sequestration within this climatic region.     

氮肥用量和秸秆根茬碳投入对黄淮海平原典型农田土壤有机质积累的影响

土壤有机质与粮食安全和气候变化等重大问题密切相关,也是目前国内外研究热点。通过分析黄淮海平原10个小麦玉米长期定位试验资料,在不同施氮量下建立土壤有机质积累与碳投入的数学模型,探讨了土壤有机质积累与碳氮投入的关系。结果表明:土壤有机质积累与碳投入的关系受氮肥用量的影响显著,无论低量施氮(长期定位试验中的常规施肥量,化肥氮量≤330kg/(hm.2a))还是高量施氮(长期定位试验中的高量施肥量,化肥氮量330kg/(hm.2a)),秸秆根茬碳还田量与土壤有机质变化量之间均呈极显著正相关关系(P0.01);利用土壤有机质积累与碳投入的数学模型计算的维持土壤有机质平衡的碳投入量(MSC),高量施氮时为7254kg/(hm.2a),低量施氮为1297kg/(hm.2a),前者是后者的5.6倍。因此,大量施用氮肥降低了投入碳的积累,不利于土壤有机质的提升。     

Feedstock design for quality biomaterials

Feedstock design is crucial for lignocellulosic biomass use. Current strategies for feedstock design cannot be readily applied to improve the quality of biomass-based materials, limiting the sustainability and economics of lignocellulosic biorefineries. Recent studies have advanced the understanding of biomass structure–property relationships and discovered several characteristics, such as molecular weight, uniformity, linkage profile, and functional groups, that are critical for manufacturing diverse quality biomaterials. These discoveries call for fundamentally different strategies for feedstock development. Such strategies need to rediscover the roles of monolignol biosynthesis enzymes and leverage lignin polymerization enzymes to achieve precise control of lignin molecular structure. These innovations could transform biomass into feedstock for high-quality biomaterials, addressing essential environmental challenges and empowering the bioeconomy.     

Intercropping enhances soil carbon and nitrogen

Intercropping, the simultaneous cultivation of multiple crop species in a single field, increases aboveground productivity due to species complementarity. We hypothesized that intercrops may have greater belowground productivity than sole crops, and sequester more soil carbon over time due to greater input of root litter. Here, we demonstrate a divergence in soil organic carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) content over 7 years in a field experiment that compared rotational strip intercrop systems and ordinary crop rotations. Soil organic C content in the top 20 cm was 4% ± 1% greater in intercrops than in sole crops, indicating a difference in C sequestration rate between intercrop and sole crop systems of 184 ± 86 kg C ha^?1 yr^?1. Soil organic N content in the top 20 cm was 11% ± 1% greater in intercrops than in sole crops, indicating a difference in N sequestration rate between intercrop and sole crop systems of 45 ± 10 kg N ha^?1 yr^?1. Total root biomass in intercrops was on average 23% greater than the average root biomass in sole crops, providing a possible mechanism for the observed divergence in soil C sequestration between sole crop and intercrop systems. A lowering of the soil δ¹⁵N signature suggested that increased biological N fixation and/or reduced gaseous N losses contributed to the increases in soil N in intercrop rotations with faba bean. Increases in soil N in wheat/maize intercrop pointed to contributions from a broader suite of mechanisms for N retention, e.g., complementary N uptake strategies of the intercropped plant species. Our results indicate that soil C sequestration potential of strip intercropping is similar in magnitude to that of currently recommended management practises to conserve organic matter in soil. Intercropping can contribute to multiple agroecosystem services by increased yield, better soil quality and soil C sequestration.     

Belowground impacts of perennial grass cultivation for sustainable biofuel feedstock production in the tropics

Perennial grasses can sequester soil organic carbon (SOC) in sustainably managed biofuel systems, directly mitigating atmospheric CO₂ concentrations while simultaneously generating biomass for renewable energy. The objective of this study was to quantify SOC accumulation and identify the primary drivers of belowground C dynamics in a zero‐tillage production system of tropical perennial C4 grasses grown for biofuel feedstock in Hawaii. Specifically, the quantity, quality, and fate of soil C inputs were determined for eight grass accessions – four varieties each of napier grass and guinea grass. Carbon fluxes (soil CO₂ efflux, aboveground net primary productivity, litterfall, total belowground carbon flux, root decay constant), C pools (SOC pool and root biomass), and C quality (root chemistry, C and nitrogen concentrations, and ratios) were measured through three harvest cycles following conversion of a fallow field to cultivated perennial grasses. A wide range of SOC accumulation occurred, with both significant species and accession effects. Aboveground biomass yield was greater, and root lignin concentration was lower for napier grass than guinea grass. Structural equation modeling revealed that root lignin concentration was the most important driver of SOC pool: varieties with low root lignin concentration, which was significantly related to rapid root decomposition, accumulated the greatest amount of SOC. Roots with low lignin concentration decomposed rapidly, but the residue and associated microbial biomass/by‐products accumulated as SOC. In general, napier grass was better suited for promoting soil C sequestration in this system. Further, high‐yielding varieties with low root lignin concentration provided the greatest climate change mitigation potential in a ratoon system. Understanding the factors affecting SOC accumulation and the net greenhouse gas trade‐offs within a biofuel production system will aid in crop selection to meet multiple goals toward environmental and economic sustainability.     

澳大利亚生物经济发展框架及其比较启示

生物经济(bioeconomy)与生物资源、低碳排放、食品安全、营养健康、生物能源、生物材料、农业重新定位、土地利用、生物多样性及生态服务(BES)、研究与开发(R&D)及政策制定等众多领域具有越来越密切、越来越重要的关系。从澳大利亚对"生物经济"的理解、生物经济框架及发展机遇等方面分析了生物经济在澳大利亚的发展状况,与其他国家或地区生物经济发展进行比较,给当代可持续发展观赋予新的时代内涵,给中国生物经济发展提供以下借鉴与启示:倡导广义生物经济发展,引领多领域绿色革命;重视生物经济的可持续性与农业角色的重新定位;超越概念阶段,将生物经济作为可持续发展的平台;适宜采用生物经济发展的"全生物质"模式。     

农田土壤固碳措施的温室气体泄漏和净减排潜力

农田土壤固碳措施作为京都议定书认可的大气CO2减排途径受到了广泛关注.研究表明,农田土壤固碳措施在主要农业国家和全球都具有很大的固碳潜力.但是,实施农田土壤固碳措施有可能影响农业中化石燃料消耗和其他农业投入的CO2排放和非CO2温室气体排放.这些土壤碳库以外的温室气体排放变化可能抵消部分甚至全部土壤固碳效果,构成了农田土壤固碳措施的温室气体泄漏.因此,将土壤固碳和温室气体泄漏综合计算的净减排潜力成为了判定土壤固碳措施可行性的首要标准.综述总结了目前较受重视的一些农田措施(包括施用化学氮肥、免耕和保护性耕作、灌溉、秸秆还田、施用禽畜粪便以及污灌)的土壤固碳潜力,温室气体泄漏和净减排潜力研究成果.结果表明,温室气体泄漏可抵消以上措施土壤固碳效益的-241%～660%.建议在今后的研究中,应该关注土壤碳饱和、气候变化及土地利用变化对农田固碳措施温室气体泄漏和净减排潜力的评估结果的影响.     

Controls on Soil Carbon Sequestration and Dynamics: Lessons from Land-use Change

Soil carbon (C) dynamics and sequestration are controlled by interactions of chemical, physical and biological factors. These factors include biomass quantity and quality, physical environment and the biota. Management can alter these factors in ways that alter C dynamics. We have focused on a range of managed sites with documented land use change from agriculture or grassland to forest. Our results suggest that interactions of soil type, plant and environment impact soil C sequestration. Above and below ground C storage varied widely across sites. Results were related to plant type and calcium on sandy soils in our Northern sites. Predictors of sequestration were more difficult to detect over the temperature range of 12.4°C in the present study. Accrual of litter under pines in the moist Mississippi site limited C storage in a similar manner to our dry Nebraska site. Pre-planting heterogeneity of agricultural fields such as found in Illinois influences C contents. Manipulation of controls on C sequestration such as species planted or amelioration of soil quality before planting within managed sites could increase soil C to provide gains in terrestrial C storage. Cost effective management would also improve soil C pools positively affecting soil fertility and site productivity.     

Breeding crop plants with deep roots: their role in sustainable carbon, nutrient and water sequestration

BACKGROUND: The soil represents a reservoir that contains at least twice as much carbon as does the atmosphere, yet (apart from 'root crops') mainly just the above-ground plant biomass is harvested in agriculture, and plant photosynthesis represents the effective origin of the overwhelming bulk of soil carbon. However, present estimates of the carbon sequestration potential of soils are based more on what is happening now than what might be changed by active agricultural intervention, and tend to concentrate only on the first metre of soil depth. SCOPE: Breeding crop plants with deeper and bushy root ecosystems could simultaneously improve both the soil structure and its steady-state carbon, water and nutrient retention, as well as sustainable plant yields. The carbon that can be sequestered in the steady state by increasing the rooting depths of crop plants and grasses from, say, 1 m to 2 m depends significantly on its lifetime(s) in different molecular forms in the soil, but calculations (http://dbkgroup.org/carbonsequestration/rootsystem.html) suggest that this breeding strategy could have a hugely beneficial effect in stabilizing atmospheric CO(2). This sets an important research agenda, and the breeding of plants with improved and deep rooting habits and architectures is a goal well worth pursuing.     

Biochar supply-chain and challenges to commercialization

Produced through pyrolysis, biochars are used as a soil amendment. Differences in feedstock and processing result in differentiated products which impact their values in different soil conditions. Despite the enormous potential, biochars have not been widely used. This paper overviews the benefits and potential demand for biochar and features of supply chain, and identifies opportunities for viable introduction of biochars. The value of biochars should be evaluated as a part of the pyrolysis system that coproduces biochars and biofuels. Biochars can improve agricultural productivity and soil functioning and contribute to climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration. Furthermore, it can provide extra benefit by contributing to fire prevention. The cost of biochar system depends on the costs of feedstock acquisition, transportation, and processing. Biochar is most likely to be adopted in locations with marginal land and high-value crop, and near low-cost feedstock sources. The adoption of biochar can be enhanced by compensation for carbon sequestration, further investment in research, and learning of producers to enhance efficiency of the supply chain.     

Trade-offs between water yield and carbon sequestration for sub-alpine catchments in western Sichuan,China北大核心CSCD

Aims: There is increasing concern on the trade-off between carbon sequestration and water yield of forest ecosystems. Our objective was to explore the effects of vegetation composition on water and carbon trade-off in the sub-alpine watersheds of western Sichuan during 1982-2006. Methods: The WaSSI-C, which is an eco-hydrological model with coupled water and carbon cycles, was employed to calculate the key components in water balance and carbon sequestration for the 22 sub-catchments in the upper reaches of Zagunao River. Spearman's Rho trend analysis was used to examine the trends in runoff and net ecosystem productivity. Important findings: Compared with either subalpine meadow or mixed forest dominated catchments, the conifer-dominated catchments had much higher water loss due to high evapotranspiration, and the loss was not offset by its higher soil water infiltration during the growing season. The change in soil water storage for subalpine meadow, mixed forest and coniferous forest are -44 mm, -18 mm and -5 mm, respectively, which indicated significant decline in soil water storage and thus water yield particularly in alpine meadow catchments. Significant negative relationship was found between runoff and net ecosystem productivity, the alpine meadow as the dominant vegetation type showed high water yield and low carbon sequestration, and the conifer-dominant and mixed forest vegetation showed low water yield and high carbon sequestration, moreover, the higher the forest coverage, the lower the water yield. Upward trends in net ecosystem productivity were observed in the three vegetation types during the study period and the alpine meadow type was significant.     

Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Responses to Nitrogen Fertilizer and Harvesting Rates in Switchgrass Cropping Systems

The environmental sustainability of bioenergy cropping systems depends upon multiple factors such as crop selection, agricultural practices, and the management of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and water resources. Perennial grasses, such as switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), show potential as a sustainable bioenergy source due to high yields on marginal lands with low fertilizer inputs and an extensive root system that may increase sequestration of C and N in subsurface soil horizons. We quantified the C and N stocks in roots, free particulate, and mineral-associated soil organic matter pools in a 4-year-old switchgrass system following conversion from row crop agriculture at the W.K. Kellogg Biological Station in southwest Michigan. Crops were fertilized with nitrogen at either 0, 84, or 196 kg N ha^?1 and harvested either once or twice annually. Twice-annual harvesting caused a reduction of C and N stocks in the relatively labile roots and free-particulate organic matter pools. Nitrogen fertilizer significantly reduced total soil organic C and N stocks, particularly in the stable, mineral-associated C and N pools at depths greater than 15 cm. The largest total belowground C stocks in biomass and soil occurred in unfertilized plots with annual harvesting. These findings suggest that fertilization in switchgrass agriculture moderates the sequestration potential of the soil C pool.     

不同施肥管理措施对农田土壤中植物和微生物残留组分的影响

在农田生态系统中,施肥是维持和提高土壤有机碳(SOC)水平的重要管理措施。微生物代谢和植物组分存留共同控制着有机碳的截获过程。本研究利用肥料与肥力长期(30年)定位试验,以氨基糖和木质素分别作为微生物和植物残留组分标识物,探讨长期不同施肥处理对黑土农田中微生物和植物残体组分积累及有机碳库的影响。结果表明: 与未施肥处理相比,施用无机肥(单施氮肥或有机无机肥配施)可增加作物生物量和土壤氨基糖的积累,但对木质素和SOC含量无显著影响,说明无机肥施入刺激了微生物底物同化,加速了有机碳和木质素在耕层的周转。与无机肥相比,长期施用有机肥促进了SOC的累积(增幅38.3%),但是氨基糖在土壤有机碳中所占的比例并未发生显著变化,说明微生物残留物对SOC积累的贡献具有饱和性;而有机肥施入增加了木质素在SOC中的比例,即增加了植物残体对SOC长期积累的贡献。与单施有机肥相比,有机无机肥配施增加了微生物残留物对SOC的积累。因此,长期施肥可以调节微生物残留物和植物残留组分的不同积累过程,从而影响SOC的积累和稳定机制。     

The end of hunger: fertilizers,microbes and plant productivity

It is a grand challenge to ensure the food security for a predicted world population of exceeding 9.7 billion by 2050, especially in an era of global climate change, land degradation and biodiversity loss. Current agricultural productions are mainly relying on synthetic chemical fertilisers to boost plant productivity but have undesirable effects on the environment and soil biodiversity. A promising direction in sustainable agriculture is to harness naturally occurring processes of beneficial plant-associated microbiomes to ensure sustained crop production and global food security. Despite the significant progress made in the development of beneficial microbes as inoculants to enhance plant performance, challenges remain with the translation of knowledge of plant and soil microbiomes to successful microbial products in the agricultural sector. Here, we highlight how fertilizer technology should be renovated by harnessing microbiome-based innovations to promote plant productivity and contribute to the end of hunger.     

Effects of soil physics,chemistry, and microbiology on soil carbon sequestration in infertile red soils after long-term cultivation of perennial grasses

Determining the effect of perennial energy crop (PEC) cultivation on soil organic carbon (SOC) in marginal land soil is vital for carbon neutrality and bioeconomy development. However, a comprehensive and systematic evaluation of the response of SOC content to different PECs and its underlying drivers is still lacking. We used soil data collected from infertile red topsoil (0–20 cm) after 10 years of cultivation with Miscanthus (MS), Panicum virgatum (SG), and Saccharum arundinaceum (SA) to explore the changes in SOC stock induced by PEC. The roles of physical, chemical, and microbiological factors driving the increase in the SOC stock were investigated. Results revealed that SA and MS enhanced SOC stock by 87.97% and 27.52% relative to the uncultivated control. Conversely, PEC increased the percentage of soil mega-aggregates, geometric mean diameters, soil chelate iron (Fe), and aluminum (Al) oxides, and reduced soil acidity for the infertile red soils. In addition, fungal richness and diversity for PEC soils were enhanced compared to the unplanted soil. It is possible that PEC cultivation reduced the relative abundance of copiotrophic fungi but increased the relative abundance of oligotrophic fungi. Furthermore, variance partitioning analysis revealed that chemical and microbiological factors accounted for 80.54% of the total variation for the SOC stock. The partial least squares path model showed that PEC cultivation enhanced soil carbon (C) stock via soil deacidification and increased soil bacterial function. In conclusion, this study confirms the SOC sequestration potential of PEC cultivation in marginal land and the underlying mechanism driving SOC stock. The main positive factors controlling soil C sequestration included “pH,” while the negative factors were “bacterial community,” “fungal community,” and “bacterial function.” Our research may help encourage and support decision-makers of wasted marginal land conversion to PEC cultivation.     

川西亚高山流域水碳平衡研究

森林生态系统的产水量与固碳效益之间存在着一种可交易的平衡关系。基于WaSSI-C水碳耦合模型和趋势分析, 研究了1982-2006年川西杂古脑河上游22个子流域内不同植被类型空间分布对水碳平衡的影响并分析了其水碳耦合关系, 发现: 1)针叶林主导的流域在生长季增加土壤水分入渗的功能明显高于其他植被类型, 但不足以补偿其高蒸散带来的水分消耗, 因而其年平均土壤含水量明显低于高山草甸和混交林类型; 且森林土壤含水量随着森林覆盖率的升高而降低。2) 25年的土壤水分蓄变量的平均值, 高山草甸流域为-44 mm, 混交林为-18 mm, 针叶林为-5 mm, 说明川西亚高山植被的整体维持稳定产水量及其潜力在下降, 其中高山草甸流域下降趋势尤为显著。3)流域产流量和净生态系统生产力具有显著负相关性, 且不同植被组成对固碳和产水效益的转化具有重要影响: 高山草甸主导的子流域具有较高的产水量和较低的固碳能力, 常绿针叶林主导的子流域具有较高固碳能力和较低产水量, 且森林覆盖率越高, 产水量越低。三种植被类型的净生态系统生产力在研究期间均呈现上升趋势, 且高山草甸的上升趋势显著。     

Trade-offs between water yield and carbon sequestration for sub-alpine catchments in western Sichuan,China

Aims There is increasing concern on the trade-off between carbon sequestration and water yield of forest ecosystems. Our objective was to explore the effects of vegetation composition on water and carbon trade-off in the sub-alpine watersheds of western Sichuan during 1982-2006.Methods The WaSSI-C, which is an eco-hydrological model with coupled water and carbon cycles, was employed to calculate the key components in water balance and carbon sequestration for the 22 sub-catchments in the upper reaches of Zagunao River. Spearman’s Rho trend analysis was used to examine the trends in runoff and net ecosystem productivity. Important findings Compared with either subalpine meadow or mixed forest dominated catchments, the conifer-dominated catchments had much higher water loss due to high evapotranspiration, and the loss was not offset by its higher soil water infiltration during the growing season. The change in soil water storage for subalpine meadow, mixed forest and coniferous forest are -44 mm, -18 mm and -5 mm, respectively, which indicated significant decline in soil water storage and thus water yield particularly in alpine meadow catchments. Significant negative relationship was found between runoff and net ecosystem productivity, the alpine meadow as the dominant vegetation type showed high water yield and low carbon sequestration, and the conifer-dominant and mixed forest vegetation showed low water yield and high carbon sequestration, moreover, the higher the forest coverage, the lower the water yield. Upward trends in net ecosystem productivity were observed in the three vegetation types during the study period and the alpine meadow type was significant.