生态环境恢复重建与农村妇女受教育程度的关联性分析

搞清影响农村生态环境的因素,可以为防止农村生态环境的进一步恶化,为农村生态环境恢复和重建奠定基础。调查结果表明农村妇女受教育程度与农村生态环境的恢复与重建呈正相关,并且农村生态环境恶化与农业生产有明显联系;农村妇女受教育程度和农业生产是影响农村生态环境恢复与重建的直接原因。搞好农村生态环境保护与建设必须以发展农村经济为前提,以提高农村的教育投资和农村妇女受教育程度为基础,落实具体的科技措施,重视农业生产引导与管理。     

Kastom and Anticolonialism on Malaita: “Culture” as Political Symbol

Most Melanesians invoking ideologies of kastom have, in becoming Christianized and partly Westernized, hearkened back to ways now lost or abandoned. But the Kwaio of Malaita are preoccupied with kastom, while traditional religion, social organization and exchange still prevail. Why and how? The Kwaio are compared with Kwara'ae and other Malaita peoples concerned with kastom - many Christianized, others clinging to old ways.     

Pregnancy wantedness: attitude stability over time

In this analysis we have compared two attitudinal reports, from interviews two years apart, of the same event for consistency over time. We have looked at women's self-reports, and at their proxy reports for partners' attitudes as well. The inconsistent reports of women's own views tended to shift slightly toward more favorable reports at the second interview (15 percent more positive versus 10 percent more negative). More specifically, 7.5 percent of women who reported at Time 1 that their most recent births had been unwanted switched to more favorable reports at Time 2, and about the same percentage of women who reported Table 4, the findings would suggest that some of the groups typically considered to be most "at risk" were those who were also most apt to report inconsistently. This findings should signal some concern in the policy community. Net of other factors, there is no effect of income, but a number of at-risk groups remained significantly more likely than others to change their reports over time. Of particular concern is the finding that women who reported their pregnancies as mistimed or unwanted were so much more likely to change their reports over time than were women who initially said that their pregnancies had been well timed. When we look at the direction of change, it is clear that, with some exceptions, the more "at risk" groups were more likely to shift in a more negative direction, while the less "at risk" groups were less likely to do so; and at times they were more likely to report more favorably at the second interview. Although somewhat hampered by small sample sizes in the analysis of Time 1 mistimed and unwanted reports, results confirmed that certain subgroups were not only more apt to report inconsistently, they were also more likely to do so in specific directions. To the extent that future survey questions can emphasize to respondents that they should focus on the time of conception, and not on current status, inconsistency across groups may be reduced.     

Human ecology in the Solomon Islands: Biomedical observations among four tribal societies

Data are presented from the first four groups studied in a longrange investigation of human ecology in the Solomon Islands. The groups varied in habitat, way of life, genetic background, and exposure to Western influence. Coverage of residents in designated hamlets was 78% for Kwaio, Malaita Island; 91% for Nasioi, Bougainville Island; and over 95% for both Lau and Baegu of Malaita. In all, 1626 persons were studied: 256 Nasioi, 443 Kwaio, 442 Lau, and 485 Baegu. All four groups were demographically “young,” with a high ratio of persons under 15 to those over 45 years of age, but a significant proportion lived to old age. Nutrition was adequate, though low in protein and fat. They had very little color-blindness and virtually no myopia, astigmatism, glaucoma, or hypertensive and coronary heart disease. Malaria, trachoma, and intestinal parasitism reflected differences in habitat and ways of life, but tuberculosis did not. Despite a density as high as that recorded for any human population, the Lau, living on small artificial islets in a saltwater lagoon, enjoyed robust health.     

Deconstructing Pregnancy: RU486, Seeing "Eggs," and the Ambiguity of Very Early Conceptions

This article deconstructs previous notions of pregnancy. Using empirical data from French women's experience with RU486 for medical abortion, I demonstrate that very early and unwanted conceptions have an ambiguous quality. I illustrate an understanding of pregnancy as a reproductive continuum: these women understand pregnancy to include a stage where "eggs," and not fetuses, are present. I discuss how the use of RU486 creates new ways of knowing about the fetus, and I compare an understanding of the fetus by women using RU486 with previous understandings from ultrasound images, in utero photography, and the imagination. I demonstrate that women's embodied knowledge can expand the parameters of fetal discourse. [RU486, fetal discourse, embodied knowledge, abortion, reproductive technology]     

The varied nature of women's sexuality: unresolved issues and a theoretical approach

During the 20th century there were clear indications that the socio-cultural suppression of women's sexuality had lessened, revealing a marked variability of women's sexual expression. In this article we review the recent literature to explore explanations for this variability. It is clear that we know little about the nature of sexual desire, and in particular, what it is that is desired. There is also now substantial evidence that vaginal response, as measured by vaginal pulse amplitude, is a relatively automatic response to perception of sexual stimuli, regardless of whether these stimuli are perceived positively or result in subjective arousal. This is considered as a possible mechanism that allows vaginal intercourse without pain, even when the woman is not sexually aroused. The roles of androgens and estrogen in women's sexuality remain uncertain. The evidence is, however, consistent with there being a testosterone-dependent component of women's sexuality that is more important for some women than others. Finally, a new theoretical model is presented that aims to resolve these uncertainties and that proposes different types of women's sexuality. Once we have a better understanding of “normal” female sexuality, in its various forms, our ability to develop effective treatments for women's sexual problems should improve.     

Participation of women in neurochemistry societies

Women have made important scientific contributions to the field of neurochemistry, and they have also been leaders in neurochemical societies throughout the world. Here I discuss women's involvement and leadership in six neurochemistry societies: American Society for Neurochemistry, Argentine Society for Neurochemistry, International Society for Neurochemistry, European Society for Neurochemistry, Japanese Society for Neurochemistry, and Asian-Pacific Society for Neurochemistry. The number of women who have been active in these societies and the level of their activity vary considerably. Neurochemical societies in the Western hemisphere, i.e., the American and the Argentine Society for Neurochemistry, have much greater numbers of women who have held office, been on council, or engaged in other leadership activities than in the rest of the world. The limited participation of women in the Japanese Neurochemistry Society relates to Japanese cultural views and was not unexpected. However, the relatively few women leaders in the International Society for Neurochemistry was a surprise. The European Society had a somewhat better record of female participation than did the International Society. The reasons for these differences are partly cultural, but factors related to when each society was formed, how it is organized, and how elections are structured undoubtedly play a role. Further analysis of these observations would be of interest from a sociological and a women's studies point of view     

Sonography and sociality: obstetrical ultrasound imaging in urban Vietnam

This article is about new reproductive technologies, maternal anxieties, and existential uncertainties. It explores the question of why pregnant women in Vietnam's capital, Hanoi, have become avid consumers of obstetrical ultrasound scanning even while expressing profound doubts regarding the reliability and safety of this new technology of pregnancy. Through a phenomenological analysis of the social production of women's sense of reproductive risks and uncertainties, the article shows how Hanoian women's paradoxical stances toward ultrasound imaging can be explained through a consideration of embodied and historically generated experiences within everyday local worlds. The article argues that the "scientific stories" of fetal well-being and normality that are produced through ultrasonography are challenged by vivid and continual exchanges in everyday lives of stories of the inherent uncertainties of existence in general and of human reproduction in particular.     

A biosocial model of medication use among older women and men in Ismailia, Egypt

In Western industrialized countries, women report using health services, and certain medications, more often than do men. Often, analyses are based on data that exclude objective measures of morbidity and that come from cross-sectional surveys, which precludes the use of socioeconomic covariates that are endogenous to seeking care. Here, differences in objective cognitive and physical function, as well as differences in reporting on illness, propensity to seek care, and socioeconomic resources are expected to account for differences in care-seeking behaviour among women and men. This model is applied to the question of medication use in Ismailia, Egypt, using two waves of survey data and in-home tests of physical function from 896 adults aged 50 years and older. The results show that women use "modern" medications more often than do men, and that differences between women and men in reported morbidity and disability, observed cognitive and physical function, and economic resources account for women's greater use of medication. The findings underline a need for biosocial models to understand differences in women's and men's care-seeking behaviour in later life.     

What women who use drugs have to say about ethical research: findings of an exploratory qualitative study

Drug users are generally seen as a vulnerable population requiring special protection in research; however, to date there has been little empirical research into the ethics of research with illicit drug users. Moreover, the available research has tended to treat "drug users" as a homogeneous category, and has failed to consider potential gender differences in users' experiences. Drawing on focus groups with twenty-seven female drug users in Vancouver, Canada, this study examines women's experiences of research and what they see as ethical and respectful engagement. Many study participants talked about feeling dehumanized as a result of prior research participation. Women were critical of the assumption that drug users lack the capacity to take part in research, and affirmed the appropriateness of financial incentives. A variety of motivations for research participation were identified, including a desire for financial gain and altruistic concerns such as a desire to help others. These findings suggest that women drug users' views on ethical research differ from prevailing assumptions among institutional review boards about how research with such populations should proceed.     

Female axillary secretions influence women''s menstrual cycles: A critique

Preti, Cutler, Garcia, Huggins, and Lawley report (1986, Horm. Behav. 20, 474-482) that women's menstrual cycles can be modulated with applications of female-derived secretions. An experimental sample of 10 women who reported that they had 29.5 +/- 3 day menstrual cycles was treated on a 22- to 25-day cycle with an extract of axillary secretions from a group of female donors. After two menstrual cycles, the mean absolute difference between the women's menses onsets and the treatment applications decreased significantly. A control sample of 9 women similarly treated with blank/ethanol showed no significant change. Reanalysis of the data indicates that four subjects in the extract sample synchronized with the extract cycles because of "errors" in the extract applications and another four synchronized as a result of experimental design, mathematical properties of cocycling menses onsets, and chance variations. After these factors are accounted for, no evidence suggests that the cycles of the subjects in the extract sample were modulated by the female-derived axillary secretion.     

SURROGATE MOTHERING:EXPLOITATION OR EMPOWERMENT?

The morality of surrogate mothering is analyzed from a "consequentialist" framework which attempts to separate those consequences that invariably accompany a given act from those that accompany it only in particular circumstances. Critics of surrogacy argue that it transfers the burden and risk of pregnancy onto another woman, separates sex and reproduction, and separates reproduction and childrearing; none of these acts is necessarily wrong, either morally or for women's or society's basic interests. While surrogate mothering can be rendered immoral if women are coerced into the practice or become victims of subordinating or penalizing contracts, it has the potential to empower women and increase their status in society by providing a job that is less risky and more enjoyable than other jobs women are forced to take and by achieving greater social recognition for reproductive labor.     

Some genetic traits in Solomon island populations. I. Introduction: people and habitats

To introduce a set of genetic studies among Solomon Islanders, four tribal groups on Bougainville and Malaita Islands are described. They were observed in 1966 and 1968 by social anthropologists and biomedical scientists from Harvard University. The groups varied in habitat and way of life from fishermen living on artificial islets in a saltwater lagoon (the Lau, on Malaita) to shifting agriculturists (the Nasioi, on Bougainville, and the Kwaio and Baegu, on Malaita). The Nasioi were darker than the Malaitans and spoke a non-Austronesian rather than a Melanesian language; they were also more Westernized. Coverage of residents in designated hamlets ranged from 78% to over 95%. In all, 1,626 persons were studied: 256 Nasioi, 443 Kwaio, 442 Lau, and 485 Baegu. Genetic differences have been found between the Nasioi and the Malaitans, and between the Lau and the other Malaitans.     

From Samburu Heirloom to New Age Artifact: The Cross-Cultural Consumption of Mporo Marriage Beads

Antique Venetian trade beads used in Samburu women's marriage necklaces ( mporo ) have recently undergone intense recommodif ication in the transnational trade bead market concurrent with their appropriation by Euro-American women in both religious and secular domains. The article offers duai ethnographies of this mporo bead in order to advance anthropological understandings of precious objects in the context of globalization. Samburu and Euro-American desires for the "same" bead have been both reciprocal and distinct: Whereas Samburu desires for and exchange of mporo beads have been rooted in Samburu cultural forms, Euro-American desires for the same bead are linked to a kind of "fictional inalienability" that is not embedded in Samburu social relations but is instead rich in spiritual associations imagined through Euro-American women's vague understandings of the bead's "original" African owners. [Keywords: material culture, globalization, United States, Kenya, pastoralists]     

Malocclusion in the Kwaio, a Melanesian group on Malaita, Solomon Islands

In the present investigation, a number of occlusal variables which contribute to malocclusion were quantified among the Kwaio people of Malaita, Solomon Islands. Angle classification, overjet, overbite, openbite, crossbite, rotation, crowding, and spacing were assessed from dental casts of 180 persons (94 males, 86 females) who had complete permanent dentitions anterior to the first molar. Males had significantly more overjet and mandibular incisor crowding than females, and significantly less posterior openbite and mandibular canine-premolar spacing. The frequency of openbite, rotation of maxillary teeth, and crowding of anterior teeth increased with advancing age. The frequency of posterior crowding decreased after age 30. Spacing, in general, increased with advancing age. In the distribution of the Angle classes of occlusion, the Kwaio resembled Australian aborigines living in technologically primitive circumstances.     

A response to Dodds and Jones

In response to "Surrogacy and Autonomy," by Susan Dodds and Karen Jones in this issue of Bioethics, the author concedes that only a surrogacy practice stringently regulated by good counseling, escape clauses for pregnant women, and the prohibition of profit-making agencies will save women from exploitation, but she objects to singling out women for paternalistic "protection against themselves," and to defending women's autonomy to the extent of their right to behave in ways known to harm a fetus. Dodds and Jones' concerns about attitudes toward women, genetic bias, the concept of children as property, and the harm principle generated by surrogacy contracts are answered with arguments for why surrogacy should not be illegal.     

Attractiveness of women's body odors over the menstrual cycle: the role of oral contraceptives and receiver sex

It is a long held assumption that women have concealed ovulation,which means that men do not know when women's menstrual cyclesare in their most fertile phase. Recent empirical results haveprovided evidence that ovulation may not be totally concealedfrom pair-bonded males, but the generality and the mechanismsof the finding demand further study. To examine the possibleadaptive value of the phenomenon, it is necessary to study whetherthe ability to detect ovulation is confined to males. We studiedthese questions in an experiment in which male and female ratersrated the sexual attractiveness and intensity of T-shirts' odorsworn by 42 women using oral contraceptives (pill users) andby 39 women without oral contraceptives (nonusers). Males ratedthe sexual attractiveness of nonusers highest at midcycle. However,female raters showed only a nonsignificant trend for this relationship.Neither sex rated attractiveness of the odors of pill usersaccording to their menstrual cycle. The results indicate thatmen can use olfactory cues to distinguish between ovulatingand nonovulating women. Furthermore, the contrasting resultsbetween pill users and nonusers may indicate that oral contraceptivesdemolish the cyclic attractiveness of odors. Together, thesefindings give more basis for the study of the role of odorsin human sexual behavior.     

Street smarts and urban myths: women, sex work, and the role of storytelling in risk reduction and rationalization

Storytelling has a strong tradition in inner-city American communities. In this article, we examine patterns of storytelling among a sample of drug-using women from New York City who engage in street-based sex work. We consider two particular formats of storytelling for analysis: "street smarts" and "urban myths." Street smarts are stories of survival, and urban myths are compilations of street legends spread by word of mouth. The narratives are filled with tales of extreme risk across situations. The women used the stories to delineate the boundaries of risk as well as to rationalize risks they deemed to be inevitable but temporary in their lives. Few of the women capitalized on the greater instructive quality of the stories toward increased risk reduction, which may relate to the women's distance from an identity of "sex worker." If properly harnessed, the strength of storytelling suggests new avenues for risk-reduction interventions.     

"Change yourself and the whole world will become kinder": Russian activists for reproductive health and the limits of claims making for women

This article views reproductive health activism as a fruitful site for analyzing the cultural logics through which legitimate claims for women's needs become expressed and circumscribed. It begins from the observation that in the United States and Britain, reproductive health has been a key arena for feminist political claims and struggles for women's rights, bodily integrity, access to health care, and demands for authority in relations with experts. These concerns and struggles have not, however, emerged in all postsocialist contexts, and new activism in Russia reveals strikingly different agendas. Innovative groups of health providers seeking to increase women's access to birth control methods and safe sex, home birth opportunities, and improved health services work outside of feminist perspectives and reject political paths for change. By examining the ideological inspirations, cultural logics, and political-economic constraints shaping the outreach work of Russian health practitioners, the article explains how and why health activism became a site for personal "spiritual" revival and the strengthening of nuclear families. It also explores how conditions following the collapse of socialism have further legitimized activists' rejection of political agendas for change.     

Reading men's faces: women's mate attractiveness judgments track men's testosterone and interest in infants

This study investigated whether women track possible cues of paternal and genetic quality in men's faces and then map perception of those cues onto mate attractiveness judgments. Men's testosterone concentrations served as a proxy for genetic quality given evidence that this hormone signals immunocompetence, and men's scores on an interest in infants test were chosen as prima facie markers of paternal quality. Women's perceptions of facial photographs of these men were in fact sensitive to these two variables: men's scores on the interest in infants test significantly predicted women's ratings of the photos for how much the men like children, and men's testosterone concentrations significantly predicted women's ratings of the men's faces for masculinity. Furthermore, men's actual and perceived affinity for children predicted women's long-term mate attractiveness judgments, while men's testosterone and perceived masculinity predicted women's short-term mate attractiveness judgments. These results suggest that women can detect facial cues of men's hormone concentrations and affinity for children, and that women use perception of these cues to form mate attractiveness judgments.