不同品种大豆(Glycine max L.)对中国菟丝子(Cuscuta chinensis)寄生的生理生态响应

田间条件下观察了中国菟丝子危害14个大豆品种的差异,随后选择受中国菟丝子危害差异显著的3个品种与中国菟丝子混种,探讨田间条件下中国菟丝子危害这3个品种大豆植株的生理生态效应。实验显示:在寄生关系确立前,受危害重的大豆品种植株的光合色素含量和净光合速率、总黄酮和植株全氮的含量比受危害轻的品种高,而可溶性糖的含量则相反。在寄生关系确立后,危害重的品种植株光合色素含量和净光合速率、总黄酮和植株全氮的含量下降,可溶性糖含量则是危害程度愈重,升幅愈大。在相同栽培条件下,中国菟丝子生物量为:危害重的大豆植株>危害轻的大豆品种植株,同时受危害重的大豆品种植株的生物量下降也大,但中国菟丝子生物量与寄生大豆植株生物量下降量的百分比为:受危害重的品种<受危害轻的品种。结果表明:中国菟丝子在大豆品种间的寄生差异与大豆品种光合作用、次生代谢、同化物质合成和氮含量指标的变化有关,受中国菟丝子影响后大豆品种间的这些生理指标的差异进一步扩大。     

Development of Cuscuta species on a partially incompatible host: induction of xylem transfer cells

Summary.  The growth of dodders, Cuscuta reflexa and Cuscuta japonica, on the partially incompatible host poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is studied. Poinsettia responds by bark growths to the formation of the dodder haustoria and prevents dodder from obtaining normal growth. The growth instead becomes extremely branched, coral-like, and dodder lacks the ability to form haustoria. After a period of coral-like growth, long shoots sprout, resembling the normal growth. These long shoots mark an ending phase for dodder, which dies shortly after without having flowered. During the coral-like growth phase, dodder develops transfer cells in the parenchyma cells bordering the vessels of the xylem in the shoot. The transfer cells have not been observed when dodder is grown on the compatible host Pelargonium zonale. A coral-like growth phase has also been observed at the establishing phase when dodder is grown in vitro on agar; later a more normal growth form takes over. In this coral phase, xylem transfer cells are also developed. The fluorochromes carboxyfluorescein and Texas Red were loaded into the host in the phloem and xylem, respectively, and detection of these fluorochromes in the dodder stem indicated that a functional haustorial contact developed for both vascular systems. The results show that Cuscuta spp. have the genetic ability to develop xylem transfer cells and use this in response to developmental stress. Received June 12, 2002; accepted August 26, 2002; published online March 11, 2003     

Gypsy moth herbivory induced volatiles and reduced parasite attachment to cranberry hosts

Interactions between species can have cascading effects that shape subsequent interactions. For example, herbivory can induce plant defenses that affect subsequent interactions with herbivores, pathogens, mycorrhizae, and pollinators. Parasitic plants are present in most ecosystems, and play important roles in structuring communities. However, the effects of host herbivory on parasitic plants, and the potential mechanisms underlying such effects, are not well known. We conducted a greenhouse study to ask whether gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) damage, host cultivar, and their interaction affected preference of the stem parasite dodder (Cuscuta spp.) on cranberry hosts (Vaccinium macrocarpum). We then assessed the mechanisms that could underlie such effects by measuring induced changes in phytohormones and secondary compounds. We found that damage by gypsy moths delayed dodder attachment by approximately 0.3 days when dodder stems were added 2 days after damage, and reduced attachment by more than 50% when dodder stems were added 1 week after host plant damage. Gypsy moth damage significantly increased jasmonic acid (JA) levels, total volatile emissions, and the flavonol, quercetin aglycone, suggesting possible mechanisms underlying variation in dodder ability to locate or attach to hosts. Dodder preference also differed between cranberry cultivars, with the highest attachment on the cultivar that had significantly lower levels of total volatile emissions and total phenolic acids, suggesting that volatile composition and phenolics may mediate dodder preference. Our results indicate that herbivory can reduce subsequent attachment by a highly damaging parasitic plant, demonstrating the potential importance of early damage for shaping subsequent species interactions.     

Occurrence of Mycoplasma-like Organisms in Parenchyma Cells of Cuscuta odorata (Ruiz et Pav.)

In shoots of the dodder Cuscuta odorata mycoplasma-like organisms (MLO) were observed to occur in nearly all mature sieve elements. Their frequency within the sieve elements varied from a few organisms to high concentrations. In addition, MLO, were found in other cell types. By identifying these cells and investigating the location in the vascular tissue three different types of cells infected with MLO could be distinguished: (1) phloem parenchyma cells, (2) parenchyma cells separating the five vascular bundles of C. odorata and (3) cells in the outer region of the vascular system next to the cells looking like an endodermis. Within the cells of the types 2 and 3, MLO occurred in large numbers and at different morphological structures., Therefore, we assume that the MLO multiply in these cells.     

Proteomic analysis of blue light-induced twining response in Cuscuta australis

The parasitic plant Cuscuta australis (dodder) invades a variety of species by entwining the stem and leaves of a host and developing haustoria. The twining response prior to haustoria formation is regarded as the first sign for dodders to parasitize host plants, and thus has been the focus of studies on the host-parasite interaction. However, the molecular mechanism is still poorly understood. In the present work, we have investigated the different effects of blue and white light on the twining response, and identified a set of proteins that were differentially expressed in dodder seedlings using a proteomic approach. Approximately 1,800 protein spots were detected on each 2-D gel, and 47 spots with increased or decreased protein levels were selected and analyzed with MALDI-TOF-MS. Peptide mass fingerprints (PMFs) obtained for these spots were used for protein identification through cross-species database searches. The results suggest that the blue light-induced twining response in dodder seedlings may be mediated by proteins involved in light signal transduction, cell wall degradation, cell structure, and metabolism.     

入侵种薇甘菊防治措施及策略评估

薇甘菊Mikania micrantha H.B.K.是入侵中国南部地区的一种危害极大的外来入侵种。防治薇甘菊的措施和策略,应根据薇甘菊的物种特性及所能支配的防除资源,综合考虑、统筹安排。薇甘菊能快速生长覆盖其他植物,其残株断枝易成为独立生长的新个体、种子量巨大且极易扩散,喜入侵次生植被。物理清除适用于小面积,对大面积出现的薇甘菊不应采用。化学防除主要用于应急,但未能改变适于薇甘菊生长的生境,薇甘菊仍可能在数年后再次为害。田野菟丝子Cuscuta campestris控制薇甘菊适用于大面积危害区域,当只以控制而不以根除自然群落的薇甘菊为目标时效果很好。群落改造能一劳永逸地解除薇甘菊的危害,但只适用于宜林地,且成本较高。天敌控制和植物化感防治都尚在探索阶段。未来还应发掘有效天敌,研发综合防治措施,揭示宏观分布规律。薇甘菊防治的正确策略是:对于已形成区域性危害的薇甘菊,根除已经不可能,应采取持久战而非速决战,防止薇甘菊入侵新区域是防治的重中之重,必须优先治理轻度入侵地和能向周边区域甚至是遥远区域扩散的传播源,建立防治示范区或样地。     

Dodder hyphae invade the host: a structural and immunocytochemical characterization

Summary.  Dodder (Cuscuta pentagona) hyphae are unique amongst the parasitic weeds for their ability to apparently grow through the walls of the host plant. Closer examination reveals, however, that the hyphae do not grow through the host but rather induce the host to form a new cell wall (or extend the existing wall) to coat the growing hypha. This chimeric wall composed of walls from two species is even traversed by plasmodesmata that connect the two cytoplasms. Compositionally, the chimeric wall is quite different from the walls of either the host or in other cells of the dodder plant, on the basis of immunocytochemical labeling. The most striking differences were in the pectins, with much stronger labeling present in the chimeric wall than in either the host or other dodder walls. Interestingly, labeling with monoclonal antibodies specific to arabinan side chains of rhamnogalacturonan I pectin fraction was highly enriched in the chimeric wall, but antibodies to galactan side chains revealed no labeling. Arabinogalactan protein antibodies labeled the plasma membrane and vesicles at the tips of the hyphae and the complementary host wall, although the JIM8-reactive epitope, associated with very lipophilic arabinogalactan proteins, was found only in dodder cells and not the host. Callose was found in the plasmodesmata and along the forming hyphal wall but was found at low levels in the host wall. The low level of host wall labeling with anticallose indicates that a typical woundlike response was not induced by the dodder. When dodder infects leaf lamina, which have more abundant intercellular spaces than petioles or shoots, the hyphae grew both intra- and extracellularly. In the latter condition, a host wall did not ensheath the parasite and there was clear degradation of the host middle lamellae by the growing hyphae, allowing the dodder to pass between cells. These data indicate that the chimeric walls formed from the growth of the host cell wall in concert with the developing hyphae are unique in composition and structure and represent an induction of a wall type in the host that is not noted in surrounding walls. Received February 1, 2002; accepted July 8, 2002; published online November 29, 2002     

Effect of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Azotobacter chroococcum</Emphasis> on <Emphasis Type="Italic">in vitro</Emphasis> pineapple plants’ growth during acclimatization

Pineapple is one of the most important tropical fruits, but the availability of planting material is insufficient to agricultural demands. Therefore, several pineapple micropropagation protocols have been developed. However, acclimatization of in vitro plants continues to take a prolonged period. Biofertilizers have been found as safe alternatives to improve the agricultural performances of many crops. This study highlights some of the effects of the application of Azotobacter chroococcum (INIFAT5 strain) on in vitro pineapple plants during acclimatization. The bacteria were sprayed immediately after transplanting to the ex vitro environment; the plants were then sprayed every 4 wk. A control group of plants was established. Subsequently, after 5 mo, the evaluated variables included fresh and dry plant weight, plant height (cm), and root length (cm). The anatomy of middle-aged leaves and roots was also studied: transversal thickness and width of cuticle, epidermis, hypodermis, aquiferous parenchyma, and photosynthetic parenchyma. Thickness of root exoderm, external cortex, internal cortex, and stele were also evaluated. In general, the INIFAT5 strain improved the plant development. Results showed that the bacteria significantly provoked changes in the plant fresh weight, the thickness of the leaf abaxial and adaxial cuticles, and the root exoderm width. Contrastingly, A. chroococcum did not affect the thickness of the leaf photosynthetic parenchyma.     

Genetic diversity of dodder (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cuscuta</Emphasis> spp.) collected from commercial cranberry production as revealed in the<Emphasis Type="Italic">trn</Emphasis>L (UAA) intron

Swamp dodder (Cuscuta gronovii) is a parasitic plant detrimental to cranberries. Observation of emergence of dodder seeds collected from a cultivated cranberry bog in Massachusetts revealed 2 or more peak emergence times during 4 consecutive growing seasons. Molecular methods were used to investigate genetic variation among the emerging dodder seedlings. On emergence, dodder seedlings were collected and analyzed for DNA sequence diversity in thetrnL (UAA) intron, a noncoding region of chloroplast DNA. DNA sequence analysis of 87 seedlings collected during the 1999 and 2000 growing seasons revealed the presence of 2 dodder ecotypes, designated A and B. Comparative DNA sequence analysis indicated that in thetrnL (UAA) intron, the sequence of ecotype A is identical to that ofCuscuta gronovii, whereas the sequence of ecotype B is closest to that ofCuscuta attenuata (99.3% sequence identity; 293 bases considered). ABg/II restriction enzyme cut site was identified that distinguished between thetrnL (UAA) introns of ecotypes A and B. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) was used to analyze the sequences of 100 seedlings collected during the growing seasons of 2001 and 2002. Only 10 of the 187 samples were ecotype A, all of which emerged on or before May 7 in the growing seasons. Therefore, the predominant dodder haplotype found in this study may be a close relative ofC. attenuata and notC. gronovii, the common species found in cranberry bogs.     

Molecular cloning of geranyl diphosphate synthase and compartmentation of monoterpene synthesis in plant cells

The nature of isoprenoids synthesized in plants is primarily determined by the specificity of prenyltransferases. Several of these enzymes have been characterized at the molecular level. The compartmentation and molecular regulation of geranyl diphosphate (GPP), the carbon skeleton that is the backbone of myriad monoterpene constituents involved in plant defence, allelopathic interactions and pollination, is poorly understood. We describe here the cloning and functional expression of a GPP synthase (GPPS) from Arabidopsis thaliana. Immunohistological analyses of diverse non-secretory and secretory plant tissues reveal that GPPS and its congeners, monoterpene synthase, deoxy-xylulose phosphate synthase and geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase, are equally compartmentalized and distributed in non-green plastids as well in chloroplasts of photosynthetic cells. This argues that monoterpene synthesis is not solely restricted to specialized secretory structures but can also occur in photosynthetic parenchyma. These data provide new information as to how monoterpene biosynthesis is compartmentalized and induced de novo in response to biotic and abiotic stress in diverse plants.     

Issue Information ‐ Referees List

Rapid developments in remote‐sensing of vegetation and high‐throughput precision plant phenotyping promise a range of real‐life applications using leaf optical properties for non‐destructive assessment of plant performance. Use of leaf optical properties for assessing plant performance requires the ability to use photosynthetic pigments as proxies for physiological properties and the ability to detect these pigments fast, reliably and at low cost. We describe a simple and cost‐effective protocol for the rapid analysis of chlorophylls, carotenoids and tocopherols using high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Many existing methods are based on the expensive solvent acetonitrile, take a long time or do not include lutein epoxide and α‐carotene. We aimed to develop an HPLC method which separates all major chlorophylls and carotenoids as well as lutein epoxide, α‐carotene and α‐tocopherol. Using a C₃₀‐column and a mobile phase with a gradient of methanol, methyl‐tert‐butyl‐ether (MTBE) and water, our method separates the above pigments and isoprenoids within 28 min. The broad applicability of our method is demonstrated using samples from various plant species and tissue types, e.g. leaves of Arabidopsis and avocado plants, several deciduous and conifer tree species, various crops, stems of parasitic dodder, fruit of tomato, roots of carrots and Chlorella algae. In comparison to previous methods, our method is very affordable, fast and versatile and can be used to analyze all major photosynthetic pigments that contribute to changes in leaf optical properties and which are of interest in most ecophysiological studies.     

Factors restraining parasitism of the invasive vine Mikania micrantha by the holoparasitic plant Cuscuta campestris

Mikania micrantha (Asteraceae) is one of the 10 most invasive weeds in the world and has caused tremendous economic and environmental losses in southern China. The dodder Cuscuta campestris (Convolvulaceae) is a native holoparasite that can parasitize and suppress M. micrantha, and thus is recommended as an effective control agent. However, the natural growth of dodder lags behind that of M. micrantha and fails to exert direct year-round suppression. To verify the effective parasitic distance, we placed a dodder seedling at a designated distance from the stem of M. micrantha and monitored coiling, haustorium formation, and survival. To verify suitable host stems for the parasite, we grew M. micrantha for more than 6 months to form stems of different sizes, taped dodder seedlings to the stems, and monitored. We used various temperatures to determine the effect on dodder seed germination and M. micrantha sprouting. The results showed that a dodder–host distance of 4 cm decreased the probability of successful parasitism to 0; dodder seedlings cannot parasitize M. micrantha stem diameters ≥0.3 cm; and the temperatures for the highest dodder seed germination and M. micrantha sprouting are 26 and 30 °C, respectively. We conclude that the lack of suitable M. micrantha parts within the dodder’s effective parasitism distance is the major cause of restricted dodder parasitism and that the lower temperature for the highest dodder germination compared to that for the highest M. micrantha sprouting may decrease the possibility of parasitism. To acquire aggressive parasitism, dodder should be manually assisted by dispersing its vegetative form.     

The role of pigment system of an evergreen dwarf shrub Ephedra monosperma in adaptation to the climate of Central Yakutia

Adaptive reactions of the pigment system in assimilating shoots of evergreen dwarf shrub Ephedra monosperma J.G. Gmel. ex C.A. Mey. were studied under natural conditions of Central Yakutia. Seasonal changes in the content and ratio of green and yellow pigments were revealed; their relation to the stage of plant development and formation of cold tolerance was shown. The decrease in chlorophyll content started in September when the natural photoperiod became shorter and the air temperature lower; the chlorophyll concentration in winter was 30% lower than in summer. The content of β-carotene decreased twofold. The xanthophyll cycle pigments increased in content and deepoxidation level by a factor of 1.7 and 3.6, respectively. In peripheral cells of assimilating parenchyma, accumulation of a secondary carotenoid, rhodoxanthin was noted. In the period of active plant growth (from June to August), rhodoxanthin was absent, while its concentration in shoots in winter was 75 μg/g dry wt. It is concluded that changes in the pigment pool reflect structural and functional reorganization of photosynthetic machinery and are an indispensable part of the intricate process of plant hardening. Activation of energy-dissipating and antioxidant pigment systems, together with accumulation of the light-screening secondary carotenoid rhodoxanthin, promote the retention of photosynthetic apparatus and the survival of Ephedra monosperma plants under extreme conditions of cryolithozone of Yakutia.     

Simulation of photon transport in a three-dimensional leaf: implications for photosynthesis

A model to evaluate photon transport within leaves and the implications for photosynthesis are investigated. A ray tracing model, Raytran, was used to produce absorption profiles within a virtual dorsiventral plant leaf oriented in two positions (horizontal/vertical) and illuminated on one of its two faces (adaxial/abaxial). Together with chlorophyll profiles, these absorption profiles feed a simple photosynthesis model that calculates the gross photosynthetic rate as a function of the incident irradiance. The differences observed between the four conditions are consistent with the literature: horizontal‐adaxial leaves, which are commonly found in natural conditions, have the greatest light use efficiency. The absorption profile obtained with horizontal‐abaxial leaves lies below this, but above those obtained for vertical leaves. The latter present similar gross photosynthetic rates when irradiated on either the adaxial or abaxial surfaces. Vertical profiles of photosynthetic rates across the leaf confirm that carbon fixation occurs mainly in the palisade parenchyma, that the leaf anatomy is integral to its function and that leaves cannot be considered as a single homogeneous unit. Finally, the relationships between leaf structure, orientation and photosynthesis are discussed.     

Plastid genome structure and loss of photosynthetic ability in the parasitic genus Cuscuta

The genus Cuscuta (dodder) is composed of parasitic plants, some species of which appear to be losing the ability to photosynthesize. A molecular phylogeny was constructed using 15 species of Cuscuta in order to assess whether changes in photosynthetic ability and alterations in structure of the plastid genome relate to phylogenetic position within the genus. The molecular phylogeny provides evidence for four major clades within Cuscuta. Although DNA blot analysis showed that Cuscuta species have smaller plastid genomes than tobacco, and that plastome size varied significantly even within one Cuscuta clade, dot blot analysis indicated that the dodders possess homologous sequence to 101 genes from the tobacco plastome. Evidence is provided for significant rates of DNA transfer from plastid to nucleus in Cuscuta. Size and structure of Cuscuta plastid genomes, as well as photosynthetic ability, appear to vary independently of position within the phylogeny, thus supporting the hypothesis that within Cuscuta photosynthetic ability and organization of the plastid genome are changing in an unco-ordinated manner.