Plantar soft tissue thickness during ground contact in walking.

A technique is introduced for the measurement of plantar soft tissue thickness during barefoot walking. Subjects stepped into an adjustable Plexiglas frame which ensured that the required bony landmarks were appropriately positioned relative to a linear ultrasound probe connected to a conventional 7.5 MHz ultrasound scanner. Clear images of the metatarsal condyles or other foot bones were obtained throughout ground contact. Subsequent analysis of the video taped images using a motion analysis system allowed the tissue displacement to be calculated as a function of time. The tissue underneath the second metatarsal head was shown to undergo an average maximum compression of 45.7% during the late stages of ground contact during first step gait in a group of five normal subjects with a mean unloaded tissue thickness of 15.2 mm. The technique has a number of applications, including use in the validation of deformation predicted by finite element models of the soft tissue of the foot, and the study of alterations in the cushioning properties of the heel by devices which constrain the displacement of the heel pad.     

内蒙古和林格尔县大堡山墓地古代居民的肢骨研究

本文对内蒙古和林格尔县大堡山墓地2011年发掘出土的古代人类肢骨进行了测量与研究,并依据相关的身高计算公式对其身高进行了推算;在与内蒙古中南部地区其他古代对比组进行比较分析后,得出以下结论:大堡山地区两性居民的肱骨粗壮程度发育较弱,股骨粗壮程度相对居中、股骨骨干上端一般扁平、股骨嵴相对发达;大堡山墓地古代居民的男性身高水平较高,女性身高水平中等;根据两性差异性指数,内蒙古中南部地区东周时期女性的主体经济地位普遍偏低。     

中原地区几处仰韶文化时期考古遗址的人类食物状况分析

本文应用稳定同位素δ13C、δ15N对中原地区仰韶文化遗址, 即郑州西山、西安鱼化寨和灵宝西坡遗址出土人骨中碳、氮稳定同位素进行分析。结果显示,遗址基本均是以C4类植物为主食。δ15N值显示人们食物中也有一定程度的肉类。同时, 对相关区域的部分动物骨头的碳同位素分析结果表明, 家养动物的食性与人类食物状况具有一定的相关性, 这在C4类植物为人类主食区域中再次得到显示和证明。结合墓葬状况的分析表明, 仰韶时期已经存在社会分层现象, 在人们食物状况上也有体现。     

天津蓟县桃花园明清家族墓地人骨的身高推算(Ⅰ)

通过对天津蓟县桃花园墓地2004年和2005年出土的171例成年人骨标本的身高推算,得出桃花园组男性居民的平均身高约为167.19cm,女性居民的平均身高约为152.89cm。男性居民的平均身高普遍高于古代北方居民,而低于现代北方居民。女性居民身高水平低于古代北方居民和我国现代北方居民。     

青海大通上孙家寨古代居民mtDNA遗传分析

利用古DNA手段对考古发掘出土的人类遗骸进行遗传分析, 是揭示当地古代人群来源的重要手段。我们通过克隆测序和PCR-RFLP的方法, 从来自青海大通上孙家寨的约3000-3300年前和2000年前两个不同年代的牙齿样本中, 成功得到59个线粒体高变I区和编码区的SNP位点的序列信息。之后我们将所得序列与来自亚洲大陆的34个现代人群共1833个个体和2个不同年代的古代人群样本的线粒体序列分别在个体和群体水平上作比较,结果表明这两个时期人群并不是一脉相承的。     

Diagenesis of bone from Border Cave: implications for the age of the Border Cave hominids

Hominids from the site of Border Cave purportedly provide direct evidence for the early emergence of anatomically modern humans (AMH) in Southern Africa. ESR dating of Border Cave faunal enamel has confirmed the antiquity of the sediments, although questions persist regarding the provenience of the hominid specimens. Here we establish that, at Border Cave as elsewhere, bone mineral crystallinity, measured as the infrared (IR) splitting factor (SF), distinguishes between contemporary and recent bones on the one hand, from Middle Stone Age (MSA) bones on the other. Two hominid postcranial bones recovered in 1987 from a slumped profile, having essentially no provenience, are shown to have crystallinity indices consistent with the MSA fauna, while two of the purportedly ancient AMH specimens (BC3 and BC5) have values consistent with recent fauna. We conclude that BC3 and BC5 may be considerably younger than the sediments from which they were recovered.     

Lead levels in ancient and contemporary Japanese bones

During the past few centuries, lead production, consumption and emissions, to our total environment have increased remarkably. We have determined the concentrations of lead in 41 well-preserved ancient and 11 contemporary rib bones of a mature age (40–60 y), with a view to historically evaluating lead exposure in humans. The oldest Japanese bones (1000–300b.c.) were found to contain a mean of 0.58 μg Pb/g dry wt and a mean molar ratio of lead to calcium of 0.6×10⁻⁶, compared with 4.7–5.2×10⁻⁶ in the bones of the Edo era (1600–1867a.d.) and contemporary residents in Japan. The mean molar ratios of female bones were always higher than those of male bones for each era. From this fact we may assume that facial cosmetics were one of the main routes of lead exposure among the ancient Japanese, especially those who lived during the Edo era.     

Ancient DNA and conservation: lessons from the endangered kiwi of New Zealand

Conservation genetics typically seeks to map the distribution of contemporary genetic variation across space, and to use the resulting genetic parameters to infer any likely short-term evolutionary consequences for rare and endangered species. Recent developments in the study of ancient DNA now enable the extension of genetic variation studies backwards in time and provide a context by which to interpret contemporary levels of genetic variation, in addition to any patterns of genetic change over time. Ancient DNA research can also help to determine past levels of genetic diversity, identify species' boundaries and reveal former ranges among morphologically cryptic taxa. Ancient DNA sequence data for the New Zealand kiwi (Apteryx spp.) are presented and we show that most ancient populations of rowi and tokoeka exhibited private mitochondrial DNA haplotypes. Moreover, we illustrate that the extinction of these populations has led to the loss of considerable genetic variation. We also use ancient DNA methodology to determine past species distributions for brown kiwi and great spotted kiwi whose bones are morphologically indistinguishable.     

The use of protein characteristics to assess the retrievability of ancient DNA from ancient bones

The ability to retrieve DNA from ancient specimens has been one of the greatest achievements of the past decade, and has opened a totally new field of research with applications in seemingly distant domains such as archeobotany, the molecular phylogeny of extinct genomes, human paleopathology and the genetic of ancient human populations. However, extraction of ancient DNA has often a very low rate of success, prompting researchers to develop screening methods for the selection of promising specimens. With this goal in mind, we studied the amino acid content of nine human bones of ancient origin. We demonstrate that a single HPLC chromatogram is indicative of the integrity of ancient bone proteins. Among five specimens containing amplifiable DNA, four exhibited a protein content similar to that of contemporary bone protein content. Three of the four specimens, from which we were unable to extract any amplifiable DNA, had an amino acid content strikingly different from that of contem-porary bone. A non-parametric statistical test, Kendall's tau, was used to show that protein content and PCR products, are probably correlated (at a 95% confidence level). In addition, the D/L Asp and D/L Glu racemization ratios obtained are indicative of the presence of ancient organic compounds. We propose that protein analysis should be systematically performed in studies where there are many samples in order to select the specimens that are most likely to contain retrievable ancient DNA.     

Maternal and paternal genetic diversity of ancient sheep in Estonia from the Late Bronze Age to the post‐medieval period and comparison with other regions in Eurasia

Sheep were among the first domesticated animals to appear in Estonia in the late Neolithic and became one of the most widespread livestock species in the region from the Late Bronze Age onwards. However, the origin and historical expansion of local sheep populations in Estonia remain poorly understood. Here, we analysed fragments of the hypervariable D‐loop of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA; 213 bp) and the Y‐chromosome SRY gene (130 bp) extracted from 31 archaeological sheep bones dated from approximately 800 BC to 1700 AD. The ancient DNA data of sheep from Estonia were compared with ancient sheep from Finland as well as a set of contemporary sheep breeds from across Eurasia in order to place them in a wider phylogeographical context. The analysis shows that: (i) 24 successfully amplified and analysed mtDNA sequences of ancient sheep cluster into two haplogroups, A and B, of which B is predominant; (ii) four of the ancient mtDNA haplotypes are novel; (iii) higher mtDNA haplotype diversity occurred during the Middle Ages as compared to other periods, a fact concordant with the historical context of expanding international trade during the Middle Ages; (iv) the proportion of rarer haplotypes declined during the expansion of sheep from the Near Eastern domestication centre to the northern European region; (v) three male samples showed the presence of the characteristic northern European haplotype, SNP G‐oY1 of the Y‐chromosome, and represent the earliest occurrence of this haplotype. Our results provide the first insight into the genetic diversity and phylogeographical background of ancient sheep in Estonia and provide basis for further studies on the temporal fluctuations of ancient sheep populations.     

Proboscidean DNA from Museum and Fossil Specimens: An Assessment of Ancient DNA Extraction and Amplification Techniques

Applications of reliable DNA extraction and amplification techniques to postmortem samples are critical to ancient DNA research. Commonly used methods for isolating DNA from ancient material were tested and compared using both soft tissue and bones from fossil and contemporary museum proboscideans. DNAs isolated using three principal methods served as templates in subsequent PCR amplifications, and the PCR products were directly sequenced. Authentication of the ancient origin of obtained nucleotide sequences was established by demonstrating reproducibility under a blind testing system and by phylogenetic analysis. Our results indicate that ancient samples may respond differently to extraction buffers or purification procedures, and no single method was universally successful. A CTAB buffer method, modified from plant DNA extraction protocols, was found to have the highest success rate. Nested PCR was shown to be a reliable approach to amplify ancient DNA templates that failed in primary amplification.     

The potential use of identification of skeletal remains for the early detection of Ammotragus: an exotic ungulate species in Southern Spain

The main aim of our work was to evaluate osteometry as a complementary tool for the early detection of Ammotragus lervia, an exotic ungulate, which currently shows an expanding trend in southeastern Spain. For this purpose, 142 metacarpi and 123 metatarsi from seven Iberian ungulate species were determined by means of a classification function. In a general way, this function works, but regarding related species (those very similar from a morphometrical view), correct determination was reached in only 44.4–90% of the cases. However, in these cases, we can use auxiliary criteria like sexually dimorphic traits, and reach 100% correct identification of bones.     

Phylogenetic affiliation of ancient and contemporary humans inferred from mitochondrial DNA.

Nucleotide sequence analysis of the major non-coding region of human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from three major races was extended with data from 27 contemporary Mongoloids (20 from southeast Asia, seven from America) and 11 Ancient Japanese bones (five from Jomon Age; 3000-6000 years BP, six from the early modern Ainu; 200-300 years BP). In both cases, the sequence was determined directly from the polymerase chain reaction products. Based on a comparison of the 482 base pair sequences from a total of 128 contemporary humans, the nucleotide diversity is estimated to be 1.46%, which is three times higher than the corresponding value estimated from restriction-enzyme analysis of the whole mtDNA genome. The phylogenetic tree revealed that all lineages are classified into at least five clusters designated as C1-C5. C1 consists exclusively of Africans, and most Asians and Europeans formed C2, C3, C5 and C4, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis also indicated that part of the Asians, including the Japanese, subsequently diverged from the majority of Africans, and that Asians can therefore be separated into two distinct groups. Native Americans, however, appeared only in C3 and C5, suggesting that the size of the founder population was not so large during the peopling of American. Nucleotide sequences derived from ancient bones in a highly polymorphic region were also compared with those of contemporary humans. The nucleotide diversity among the 139 sequences in the region was estimated to be 2.26%. A group of ancient Japanese, including both Jomon peoples and the Ainu, showed a close phylogenetic affiliation with one group of contemporary Japanese and southeast Asians.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

黄陵寨头河与史家河墓地人骨的碳氮稳定同位素

戎人在古代多样性文化历史发展进程中有着不可忽视的作用,由于文献记载的匮乏,对其生活历史信息的认知极少。陕西延安黄陵寨头河与史家河战国时期戎人墓地的考古发掘,为了解古代关中地区戎人的社会生活提供了珍贵的实物资料。本文则以两墓地出土的人骨为研究对象,采用C、N稳定同位素分析方法,讨论先民的饮食结构,探索其经济模式。结果表明：寨头河与史家河墓地先民的食谱相似,食谱中植物性食物主要来自粟、黍等C₄类作物;除史家河墓地两个个体外,其余先民动物蛋白摄入较少,且未因性别不同而产生食谱差异。史家河墓地战国晚期秦人与早中期戎人的饮食结构相似。结合其他考古资料以及文献可知,寨头河与史家河墓地先民吸收关中农业文化后,利用当地良好的自然环境发展农业,形成了以农业种植为主、农牧混合的经济模式。     

巫山蓝家寨遗址家畜的动物骨骼

2012年巫山蓝家寨遗址考古发掘中,出土了春秋时期的马(Equus caballus)、黄牛(Bos taurus)、山羊(Capra hircus)、鸡(Gallus gallus domesticus)、狗(Canis familiaris)、猪(Sus domestica)6种家畜的骨骼。这是三峡地区唯一一个在先秦时期六畜兼备的古文化遗址。遗址中的马、牛,是三峡地区同类家畜中时代最早的发现资料。三峡地区早期历史时期,人类肉食资源以野生动物为主,家畜动物骨骼发现材料较少。蓝家寨遗址出现种类较多的家畜动物种类,为全面分析和认识三峡地区经济形态发展过程、古居民行为模式和区域文化等,提供了重要资料。遗址中在春秋时期出现的家畜马和黄牛,与该时期各种区域文化在三峡地区的碰撞、交流、融合有关。     

PCR-induced sequence alterations hamper the typing of prehistoric bone samples for diagnostic achondroplasia mutations

Achondroplasia (ACH) is a skeletal disorder (MIM100800) with an autosomal dominant Mendelian inheritance and complete penetrance. Here we report the screening of ancient bone samples for diagnostic ACH mutations. The diagnostic G-->A transition in the FGFR3 gene at cDNA position 1138 was detected in cloned polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products obtained from the dry mummy of the Semerchet tomb, Egypt (first dynasty, approximately 4,890-5,050 BP [before present]), and from an individual from Kirchheim, Germany (Merovingian period, approximately 1,300-1,500 BP), both of which had short stature. However, these mutations were also reproducibly observed in four ancient control samples from phenotypically healthy individuals (false-positives), rendering the reliable molecular typing of ancient bones for ACH impossible. The treatment of a false-positive DNA extract with uracil N-glycosylase (UNG) to minimize type 2 transitions (G-->A/C-->T) did not reduce the frequency of the false-positive diagnostic ACH mutations. Recently, it was suggested that ancient DNA extracts may induce mutations under PCR. Contemporary human template DNA from a phenotypically healthy individual was therefore spiked with an ancient DNA extract from a cave bear. Again, sequences with the diagnostic G-->A transition in the FGFR3 gene were observed, and it is likely that the false-positive G-->A transitions result from errors introduced during the PCR reaction. Amplifications in the presence of MnCl(2) indicate that position 1138 of the FGFR3 gene is particularly sensitive for mutations. Our data are in line with previously published results on the occurrence of nonrandom mutations in PCR products of contemporary human mitochondrial HVRI template DNA spiked with ancient DNA extracts.     

A putative upupiform bird from the Early Oligocene of the Central Western Carpathians and a review of fossil birds unearthed in Slovakia

An isolated hind limb of a miniature bird from an Early Oligocene locality (30–34 Ma) near Bystré (Slovakia) is described and analyzed. The tarsometatarsus (TMT) of the specimen is remarkably short relative to the tibiotarsus. When relative length ratios of the bones are compared with a sample of 29 extant and extinct birds with short metatarsi, the specimen variably clusters with some alcedinids, coraciids and trochilids. Log‐clusters give less ambiguous results and indicate significant proximity of the Bystré specimen to the extinct messelirrisorids (Upupiformes) and the recent acledinids (Coraciiformes). With regard to morphological details, such as those of the first metatarsal, II‐IV metatarsal trochleae, intertrochlear incisurae and phalanges, the Slovak specimen shows a combination of features, which are distributed among recent upupiforms and coraciiforms as well as extinct upupiforms (Messelirrisor) and apodiforms (Eocypselus, Parargornis). Taken together, the metric and morphological data sets suggest that the specimen from Bystré is a coraciiform sensu lato rather than an apodiform bird. Within the Coraciiformes, the robust trochlea of MT‐I with expanded dorsal shelf, the large medial and slit‐like lateral intertrochlear incisura, and the long hindtoe suggest upupiform rather than alcedinid relationships.     

Metacarpal morphometry in adults with osteogenesis imperfecta.

Osteogenesis imperfecta is often regarded as a form of osteoporosis. In many cases, particularly those in whom the first fracture occurs outside the neonatal period, bones that have not been fractured may appear radiologically normal. In a group of 24 adults with osteogenesis imperfecta the thickness of the metacarpal cortex was normal but their bones were often slender. Osteoporosis is probably not an inevitable feature of such cases, and some of the radiological abnormalities reported may be the results of previous fractures and their treatment.     

Neotropical harvestmen (Arachnida,Opiliones) use sexually dimorphic glands to spread chemicals in the environment

Sexually dimorphic glands have convergently appeared in animals and are often responsible for the production of pheromones. In the suborder Laniatores of the order Opiliones (Arachnida), glands of such type are widespread, but there is not a single paper on how they are used. Using Scanning Electron Microscopy and a behavioral approach, we describe glandular openings and how these glands are used, in the harvestmen Gryne perlata and Gryne coccinelloides (Cosmetidae). Males of these two species have glandular openings on the metatarsi of legs I and on the metatarsi IV. Males were shown rubbing the glands of the metatarsi I against their other legs, whereas glands on the metatarsi IV are gently touched on the substrate or rubbed either against other legs, or against the substrate. Not all behaviors were seen in both species.