Physique and family variables in university girls in Britain

Abstract

In a large sample of girls admitted to the University of Warwick, 1971–81, physique, as measured by height, weight, and ponderal index, was examined in relation to family variables and socioeconomic class. Not only do girls of different social classes enter the university at different average ages, but also the family size from which they come varies. There are differences between social classes in mean height, and the secular trend to increasing height continues.     

Bio-cultural effects in medieval populations

Male skeletons from medieval archaeological sites are analysed to assess differences in stature and body proportions related to the bio-cultural environment, such as social, economic, and health factors. Environmental factors, such as climate change in the course of the Middle Ages, did not have statistically significant effect on body proportions in these samples. The results show a relationship between bio-cultural factors and physique in the analysed populations that indicate stunted growth in height and weight in a leprosarium population with a low socio-economic and health status. A high-status monastic population is characterised by a stocky build, i.e., increased weight for height and relatively shorter limbs, while a medieval parish population has a linear build, i.e., relatively long limbs for height and decreased weight for height. These characteristics, relative weight for height and relative limb length, changed during the course of the Middle Ages, as did stature.     

Geographical height variation among Ohio Caucasian male convicts born 1780–1849

To more completely answer questions regarding health in the past, social scientists are utilizing previously underutilized data sources. This study focuses on one such source: penitentiary records, in order to examine geographical variation in height from a sample of 2554 male Caucasian convicts aged 23-45 years. Data collected include height, age, ancestry, nationality, and year and place of birth. Birth places were divided into five geographical areas corresponding roughly to the United States census geography divisions. Average stature for this sample was 68.4+/-2.5 in. (173.7+/-6.4 cm). Regression analyses on height, birth cohort, ancestry, nationality, and place of birth indicate significant but small differences in height across geographical areas. No significant differences were found due to birth cohort.     

The flower children of Sudbury: A note on social work services for a counterculture population

Abstract

Interviews were held with a stratified random sample of heads of households (and/ or their spouses) in metropolitan Madras to obtain information on social class identification, height and weight of self and spouse, and other socioeconomic characteristics of the household and of the parents. Social class is found to be weakly but positively correlated with height and ponderal index and is found to be moderately but positively correlated with weight, with age held constant. The social class differences are related to variations among them in ethnic and biological inheritance, the wholesomeness of the household (nutrition, sanitation, and health care), and the value placed on kinds of foodstuffs.     

Sex differences in height and sitting height in the Belgian population

Sex differences in growth were studied in a longitudinal study of 39 boys and 31 girls for sitting height. Individual growth patterns were determined by means of Preece Baines model 1. The results showed no significant bias in the fits of height and sitting height in boys and girls. Girls fits were significantly better than those of the boys for both height and sitting height. Univariate analysis by means of Mann-Whitney test showed significant sex differences for all function and biological parameters of height and sitting height excepted for s₁ parameter (the rate constant controlling pubertal velocity). Linear discriminant analysis revealed that the strongest sex differences for the timing and size parameters at adolescent. Peak velocity at adolescent was slightly less discriminating between the two sexes and velocity at take-off showed the least sex difference. These trends were similar for height and sitting height. Decomposition of sex differences in adult size showed that the major contributor to adult the sex differences is the effect of the later onset of the adolescent growth spurt in boys than in girls. Sex differences in adult phenotypes of height and sitting height are to a slightly lesser extent due to the greater adolescent gain in boys while prepubertal sex differences are almost negligible.     

Determinants of variation in adult body height

Final body height is achieved as the result of a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The aim of this article is to review past studies on body height that have followed different scientific traditions. In modern Western societies, about 20% of variation in body height is due to environmental variation. In poorer environments, this proportion is probably larger, with lower heritability of body height as well as larger socioeconomic body height differences. The role of childhood environment is seen in the increase in body height during the 20th century simultaneously with the increase in the standard of living. The most important non-genetic factors affecting growth and adult body height are nutrition and diseases. Short stature is associated with poorer education and lower social position in adulthood. This is mainly due to family background, but other environmental factors in childhood also contribute to this association. Body height is a good indicator of childhood living conditions, not only in developing countries but also in modern Western societies. Future studies combining different scientific traditions in auxology are needed to create a more holistic view of body height.     

Biosocial correlates of stature in a British national cohort

Analyses of height variation using the 1970 UK national cohort study (12,508 children at age 10 and 5470 at age 16) found clear evidence that children of higher socioeconomic status (as measured by social class, crowding, tenure, type of accommodation, income and receipt of government financial assistance) were on average taller than children of lower socioeconomic status but there was little or no difference in average stature between children living in urban or rural areas. Significant differences in height remained for most of the variables after removing the effects of father's social class suggesting that reliance on social class per se to explain height variation is inadvisable.     

Interspecific variation of scent-marking behaviour in wild tamarins, Saguinus mystax and Saguinus fuscicollis.

The scent-marking behaviour of sympatric moustached, Saguinus mystax, and saddle-back tamarins, Saguinus fuscicollis, was compared in order to explore interspecific differences and potential sources of variation. The author examined basic patterns of scent marking (types, intensity, complexity), substrate use (type, orientation, height), and social patterning of scent marking in three groups of S. mystax and one group of S. fuscicollis at the Estación Biológica Quebrada Blanco, Peruvian Amazonia. S. mystax and S. fuscicollis differed significantly in the relative frequency of different types, and in the intensity and complexity of scent marking. Only S. fuscicollis showed allomarking. They also differed significantly in the type, orientation and height of substrates used for scent marking which corresponded to general differences in substrate use. In S. fuscicollis, but very rarely in S. mystax, two or more group members marked the same site sequentially or simultaneously. 'Collective scent marking', i.e. simultaneous scent marking by most or all group members, occurred only in S. fuscicollis. Since both tamarin species live sympatrically in mixed-species groups, ecological factors are unlikely to account for the differences found in scent-marking behaviour (except for differences in substrate use). They probably relate to as yet unknown differences in social and reproductive strategies of the two species.     

The role of nutrition and genetics as key determinants of the positive height trend

The aim of this study was to identify the most important variables determining current differences in physical stature in Europe and some of its overseas offshoots such as Australia, New Zealand and USA. We collected data on the height of young men from 45 countries and compared them with long-term averages of food consumption from the FAOSTAT database, various development indicators compiled by the World Bank and the CIA World Factbook, and frequencies of several genetic markers. Our analysis demonstrates that the most important factor explaining current differences in stature among nations of European origin is the level of nutrition, especially the ratio between the intake of high-quality proteins from milk products, pork meat and fish, and low-quality proteins from wheat. Possible genetic factors such as the distribution of Y haplogroup I-M170, combined frequencies of Y haplogroups I-M170 and R1b-U106, or the phenotypic distribution of lactose tolerance emerge as comparably important, but the available data are more limited. Moderately significant positive correlations were also found with GDP per capita, health expenditure and partly with the level of urbanization that influences male stature in Western Europe. In contrast, male height correlated inversely with children's mortality and social inequality (Gini index). These results could inspire social and nutritional guidelines that would lead to the optimization of physical growth in children and maximization of the genetic potential, both at the individual and national level.     

Nutritional status of adolescents in the context of the Moroccan nutritional transition: the role of parental education

In Morocco, the beginning of the nutritional transition is closely linked to social and economic transformations and changes in behaviour and traditional lifestyles. The objective of this study is to describe the current pattern of food consumption and the nutritional status of adolescents in the province of Ouarzazate and its association with parents' educational level. The sample comprises 327 high school students from Ouarzazate: 135 (41.3%) boys and 192 (58.7%) girls (age range 15-20 years). For both boys and girls, the results show lower height and BMI z-scores than the WHO reference values. Adolescents whose parents have a low educational level have lower height/age and BMI/age z-scores than those whose fathers have a high educational level. No differences are observed in total daily energy intake depending on fathers' educational level, but the energy provided by lipids is higher in adolescents whose fathers have a high educational background. The quality of fats consumed (MUFA+PUFA/SFA) is better among those boys whose fathers have low education, but no differences are observed for girls. The process of nutritional transition is not uniform in the sample, but depends on the socioeconomic characteristics of population groups, which include, among others, accessibility of certain food, differences in habits and lifestyles related to energy expenditure, and higher prevalence of overweight and obesity in more favoured groups.     

Avian prey-dropping behavior. I. The effects of prey characteristics and prey loss

Numerous species of birds break hard-shelled prey items by droppingthem from a height. This intriguing prey-extraction method providesan excellent opportunity for studying foraging behavior becausea single, easily measurable quantity—height of drop—maybe influenced by a wide variety of identifiable characteristicsof the prey (e.g., breakability, weight) and social environment(e.g., alone or in the presence of kleptoparasites). Using adynamic, state variable modeling approach, this paper presentsthe first theoretical framework for avian prey-dropping systemsthat incorporates the diversity of prey characteristics andsocial situations. The model yielded a series of qualitativepredictions about prey-dropping behavior that can be testedreadily in any prey-dropping system. In particular, the results indicatedthat quantitative and qualitative differences in item breakability andpotential kleptoparasitism should have a significant effecton the height and pattern of prey dropping.     

Body form and nutritional status among adult males of different social groups in Orissa and Bihar States in India

This paper aims to carry out a biological investigation of the body form and nutritional status of the major social groups of Orissa and Bihar States in India. For this, Cormic Index (CI) and Body Mass Index (BMI) have been computed using data on height, sitting height and weight, taken from adult males of age 18-62 years of various ethnic groups in these two states. The subjects have been classified on the basis of chronic energy deficiency (CED). It is found that a substantial proportion of the people with CED are in the grade II and grade III categories. ANOVA, t-tests, correlation and regression were carried out separately. The results reveal that in Orissa, Scheduled Tribes are shorter, lighter and have lowest mean values of BMI and Cormic Index compared to other groups, but in Bihar, though the Scheduled Tribes are shorter, Scheduled Castes are lower in weight and have the lowest mean values of BMI. There are significant differences in BMI as well as in CI between Scheduled Tribes of Orissa and Bihar. Scheduled Castes and Tribes of Bihar have the highest percentage of CED with 64.71% and 57.45%, respectively. Muslims of Bihar are also affected (52.95%), but overall prevalence of CED is lower in Orissa (49.11%) than in Bihar (54.62%). BMI and CI are highly correlated for each of the social groups in Bihar and Orissa.     

中国城乡汉族儿童六年间(1979年—1985年)身高和躯干比例的变动趋势

本文以1979年和1985年两次全国体质调研的结果为基础材料,对我国汉族儿童在身高加速现象方面的城乡差别以及躯干比例在身高加速生长中的变动进行了分析,初步得出如下结论：(1) 6年间城乡汉族儿童的身高加速生长、发育提前;(2) 乡村儿童身高增加和身高及坐高发育高峰年龄提前的幅度大于同性别城市儿童;(3) 青春期儿童的身高和躯干比例变化较大;(4) 儿童身高和躯干比例的变化主要是成熟节律提前造成的。     

Are the differences in stature between social classes a modification or an assortment effect?

The present paper is a contribution to the discussion on the question of whether social differences in stature are due predominantly to social assortment or whether they represent a modification effect.The statures of 120 males and 114 females were measured, together with those of their parents. The target groups were “social climbers” and, for comparison, persons who had remained in the same social class as their parents. Moreover, 61 pairs of sibs were examined whereby in each case the one partner had risen up the social scale while the other had remained in his or her original class.Using the t-test, the height measurements of each group were compared with one another. It was shown that with respect to stature the “social climbers” placed themselves in the target class and diverged significantly both from their own parents and from their brothers and sisters who had not climbed the social scale. This fact was interpreted as an indication that the process of upward social mobility favours persons who are endowed with greater stature.     

Social class differences in infant mortality: the problem of competing hypotheses

The authors acknowledge there is no agreed upon explanation of the social class gradient in infant mortality. Some individuals favor explanations based on natural or social selection; some stress the influence of environmental circumstances. Often, theories are presented in articles in such a way that implies an absolute choice is needed. The authors critically examine such a controversial article to point out that erroneous conclusions may be reached and attention may be diverted away from the basic concern of improving infant survival. The controversial article argues that maternal competence is responsible for infant survival. This competence comes from the attributes of intelligence, education, and initiative, which are genetically determined. The attributes are distributed differently between social classes, as evidenced by the social mobility of women in marriage. Class differences in genetically determined maternal competence, therefore, explain the social class gradient in infant mortality. The authors argue that the article is based on the assumption that the issues can be analyzed as mutually exclusive alternatives. For example, the 1st dichotomy is that socially mobile women are either swamped or uplifted by their new environment, or that the women are stratified socially through marriage, on the basis of certain personal attributes such as intelligence, education, health, and height. The 1st option is ignored on the basis that evidence is cited to support the 2nd option, and no allowance is made for the possibility that both explanations may play a part. The differences in opinions about the hypotheses reflect varying political implications. Much well-founded evidence about environmental health risks, for example, are dangerously ignored, such as poor housing or inadequate housing.     

The stature of the self-employed and its relation with earnings and satisfaction

Taller individuals have on average a higher socio-economic status than shorter individuals. In countries where entrepreneurs have high social status, we may therefore expect that entrepreneurs are taller than wage workers. Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (2002–2012), we find that a 1 cm increase in an individual's height raises the probability of being self-employed (the most common proxy for entrepreneurship) versus paid employed by 0.15 percentage points. Within the self-employed, the probability of being an employer is increased by 0.10 percentage points as a result of a 1 cm increase in height, whereas this increase is 0.05 percentage points for an own-account worker. This result corroborates the higher social status of employers compared to own-account workers. We find a height premium in earnings for self-employed and paid-employed individuals: an additional 1 cm in height is associated with a 0.39% increase in hourly earnings for paid employees and a 0.52% increase for self-employed individuals. Our analysis reveals that approximately one third of the height premium in earnings is explained by differences in educational attainment. We also establish the existence of a height premium in terms of work and life satisfaction, which is more pronounced for paid employees than for self-employed individuals.     

Trends in physical stature across socioeconomic groups of Chilean boys, 1880–1997

This paper studies the trends in height-by-age across socioeconomic groups of Chilean boys aged 5–18 born between 1880 and 1997, by performing a meta-analysis of 38 studies reporting height-by-age published since 1898. We estimate the trends using quantile regressions and by analyzing detailed height data from five selected studies. Both methods yield an average decennial increase in height of 1–1.1 cm, and 0.9 and 1.2–1.3 cm for boys of upper and lower socioeconomic status (SES), respectively. SES differences in heights of 9–11 cm are observed up to the late 1940s. However, boys born after the 1930s exhibit substantial convergence in height between socioeconomic groups, driven by an increase in height of middle and lower SES boys of 1.5 and 1.4–2 cm per decade, respectively. As a result, SES differences in height decreased to 5 cm in 1990s. Since these changes occurred in a context of moderate economic growth and persistent income inequality, we argue that our findings are associated with the emergence and expansion of social policies in Chile since the 1940s, which delivered steady improvements in health, nutrition and living conditions.     

What is driving the relationship between height and cognition? Evidence from the Twins Early Development Study

Taller children tend to have better cognitive ability, and the relationship between height and cognition has been proposed as an explanation for the height-wage labor market premium. Height-cognition associations may arise due to social factors that favor taller individuals or be driven by “common factors” that are correlated with height and cognition. Indeed, there is now evidence of a genetic correlation between height and cognition that provides specific evidence for this concern. We examine whether genetic factors explain the relationship by estimating associations between childhood height and cognition in the Twins Early Development Study. We find that height is associated with better cognition even after controlling for genetic and environmental factors shared by twins. The association between height and cognition within fraternal twin pairs is also robust to controlling for individual genetic predictors of height and cognition. These results suggest that genetic factors are not solely responsible for driving the relationship between height and cognition.     

中国人与澳大利亚人的颏孔高度

吴新智在1961年研究山顶洞人头骨时曾指出,下颌骨颏孔的相对高度在人类进化上有着一定的意义。尼人的这一指数比新人的低,新人化石的则比现代中国人的低。现代人这一方面的种族间比较则未见报道。本文提供资料以填补这方面的空缺。 本文所用材料是收藏于南京铁道医学院解剖教研室的,出自华东的现代中国人下颌骨和收藏于澳大利亚国立大学的采自木莱河流域的澳大利亚土著人下颌骨。中国标本的性别系根据同一个体的骨盆来判断;澳大利亚标本则由澳大利亚国立大学的人类学家桑恩博士参考同一个体的头骨来判断,作者在此表示感谢。