Societal LCA Methodology and Case Study (12 pp)

Background, Aim and Scope Societal assessment is advocated as one of the three pillars in the evaluation of, and movement toward, sustainability. As is the case with the well established LCA, and the emerging LCC, societal life cycle assessment should be developed in such as way as to permit relative product comparisons, rather than absolute analyses. The development of societal life cycle assessment is in its infancy, and important concepts require clarification including the handling of the more than two hundred social indicators. Therefore, any societal life cycle assessment methodology must explain why it is midpoint- or endpoint-based as well as its reasons to be complimentary with, or included within, life cycle assessment. Materials and Methods: A geographically specific midpoint based societal life cycle assessment methodology, which employs labour hours as an intermediate variable in the calculation has been developed and evaluated against an existing LCA comparing two detergents. The methodology is based on using an existing life cycle inventory and, therefore, has identical system boundaries and functional units to LCA. The societal life cycle assessment methodology, much like LCA, passes from inventory, through characterisation factors, to provide an ultimate result. In analogy to economics and cost estimation, societal life cycle assessment combines, into its statistics, both data as well as estimates, some of which are correlated to elements of the LCI. It focuses on the work hours required to meet basic needs.A geographically specific midpoint based societal life cycle assessment methodology, which employs labour hours as an intermediate variable in the calculation has been developed and evaluated against an existing LCA comparing two detergents. The methodology is based on using an existing life cycle inventory and, therefore, has identical system boundaries and functional units to LCA. The societal life cycle assessment methodology, much like LCA, passes from inventory, through characterisation factors, to provide an ultimate result. In analogy to economics and cost estimation, societal life cycle assessment combines, into its statistics, both data as well as estimates, some of which are correlated to elements of the LCI. It focuses on the work hours required to meet basic needs. Results: The societal life cycle assessment of an appended case study indicates that Detergent 2 generates, relative Detergent 1, approximately 20% less employment in Russia, 35% less in France, and approximately five times more in Canada and South Africa, the latter derived from its higher aluminium content. There is essentially no difference in the employment in the use country (Switzerland) nor in Morocco, where some of the waste disposal was assumed to take place. Discussion: Given that housing is more affordable, in terms of shelter units per labour hour, in South Africa, compared to Europe, it is, therefore, of no surprise that Detergent 2 provides a societal benefit in terms of housing. Detergent 2 does, however, result in dematerialization, in that its environmental impact is lower (LCI). Therefore, as less resources are employed and labour required, in extraction, production and transport, the societal benefits in health care, education and necessities, a grouped variable, are lower for Detergent 2. This is despite the employment shift away from Europe and to less 'developed' regions. Conclusions: The assessment of societal impacts involves several hundred specific indicators. Therefore, aggregation is, if not impossible, at least heavily value laden and, therefore, not recommended. The impact of a societal action, derived from a product purchase or otherwise, is also highly local. Given this, societal life cycle assessment, carried through to the midpoints, and based on an existing LCI, has been developed as a methodology. The results, for an existing LCA-detergent case, illustrate that societal life cycle assessment provides a means to investigate how policy and policy makers can be linked to sustainable development. The sensitivity analyses also clarify the decisions in regards to product improvement. Recommendations and Perspectives: The goal of societal life cycle assessment is not to make decisions, but rather to point out tradeoffs to decision- or policy-makers. This case, and the methodology that it is based on, permit such a comparison. Substituting Detergent 2 for Detergent 1 reduces resource use at the expense of an increase in atmospheric and terrestrial emissions. Access to housing is improved, though at the expense of education, health care and necessities. As a recommendation, one would look at the fact that the majority of indicators are superior for Detergent 2 relative to Detergent 1and seek to improve the aqueous emissions in Detergent 2 via a change in the formulation. An energy or fossil fuel substitution at the site of production could also improve the societal benefits in terms of education and health care. While societal life cycle assessment remains in its infancy, a methodology does exist. The field can, therefore, be viewed in a similar way to LCA in the early 1990s, with a need to validate, consolidate and, ultimately, built toward a standard. The contribution is aimed at contributing to such a discussion and therefore proposes that a societal life cycle assessment be LCI-derived, geographically specific, based on mid-points, and use employment as an intermediate variable.     

Describing Values in Relation to Choices in LCA (7 pp)

Intention, Goal, Scope, Background It has gained growing acceptance in recent years that there are values in LCA, and several authors have discussed how value orientations can influence LCA models and results. The aim of this article is to continue this discussion and to focus on value choices in LCA. Objectives To find a way of describing value orientations in relation to choices in LCA. Methods This objective has been pursued in this paper by investigating the relationship between values and traditional science, exploring the concept of values, investigating the relationship between values and choice, and suggesting a way to describe the value base for specific choices in LCA. Results and Discussion Research on how to improve the environmental performance of products resembles peace research in that it aims to achieve a certain value-laden situation in society. The epistemological basis for peace research also seems to apply to LCA research. The term value has many meanings. There are several classification methods for values and I claim that one is more suitable for choices in LCA than the others. The correlation between values and choice is not straightforward, and values can only partially explain choices. Conclusions Describing the value base for choices in LCA increases the consistency and transparency of the value choices and offers a means of justifying them. Recommendations and Outlook It is recommended that the value base is described in terms of 1) what is included in the concern for the environment 2) how tradeoffs are made and 3) how uncertainty is handled.     

Comparative Studies on Related Free-Living and Pathogenic Amebae With Special Reference to Acanthamoeba*

Comparative studies were conducted on the structure, nutrition, protein composition, immunology, and effect on cell cultures of Acanthamoeba sp. (Lilly A-1 strain), A. castellanii (Singh and Neff strains), A. astronyxis, A. comandoni, A. polyphaga, A. terricola, Hartmannella vermiformis, and Naegleria gruberi. Lilly A-1 strain of Acanthamoeba received special attention owing to its pathogenicity for experimental animals. Distinct differences were noted in structure, nutrition, and antigenic composition of Acanthamoeba spp. and Hartmannella, and it was concluded that their recognition as separate genera is justified. With the exception of A. terricola, all species of Acanthamoeba could be differentiated by cyst structure. Cysts of A. terricola closely resembled those of A. castellanii Singh strain, and close antigenic relationships between these 2 species were demonstrated by gel diffusion and immunoelectrophoresis (IEP); it was concluded that the 2 amebae belong in the same species. The pathogenic Acanthamoeba sp. Lilly strain differed from the nonpathogenic A. castellanii Singh strain in (a) cyst structure; (b) protein distribution patterns (on disc electrophoresis); (c) soluble and particulate antigens (on gel diffusion, IEP, complement fixation, and immobilization tests); (d) capacity to induce cell-free plaques and other cytopathic effects (CPE) in mammalian monolayer cell cultures; (e) elimination of a phospholipase, responsible for some of the CPE, into the culture medium, Acanthamoeba sp. Lilly strain, which liberated more phospholipase, produced more CPE. Acanthamoeba sp. Lilly strain differed also from other species of this genus in cyst structure and antigenic composition. It was concluded, therefore, that, following the recommendation of Singh & Das, it ought to be placed in a separate species, Acanthamoeba culbertsoni.     

LCA of Danish Fish Products. New methods and insights (9 pp)

Goal, Scope and Background This article presents the main results from a PhD dissertation about environmental impacts from Danish fish products. The focus is on LCA results for flatfish, but the article also gives an overview of screenings of other fish species. Furthermore, it includes an analysis of the energy consumption in the fishing stage – as a function of fish species and fishing methods. Alternative impact categories that have not been included in the quantitative LCA and policy perspectives are elaborated in the discussion part of the paper. Methods The study represents a consequential LCA approach (opposed to attributional) and the functional unit is one kg consumed flatfish filet in units of 300 gram (cardboard boxes). Data are obtained from statistics, interviews, literature, and databases – mainly ETH-ESU 96 and the Danish LCA food database. The EDIP 97 method has been applied for life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) and the results have been verified by Ecoindicator 99. Results The results of the flatfish LCA show that the fishing stage has the largest impact potential for the investigated impact categories. This is mainly due to a relatively high fuel consumption and significant emissions of biocides from anti-fouling agents (contributing to ecological toxicity). But large reductions in fuel intensity (fuel consumption per kg caught fish) can be obtained by changing the type of fishing gear – particularly in flatfish fisheries. The consumption and retail stages represent significant impact potentials as well, while processing is insignificant. LCA screenings of other fish species show the same picture, but there are cases (herring, mackerel and mussels) where the fishing stage is less important, while the opposite is the case for processing – mainly due to energy intensive packaging materials. Discussion A limited number of impact categories have been investigated, but a 'qualitative' LCA, focusing on other fishery specific impacts, emphasises that the fishing stage is indeed the overall most important. In this regard, it is argued that fuel requirements in many cases are proportional to environmental impacts related to 'discard' and 'seafloor damage'. Hence, it is worth focusing on energy for many reasons. In a policy context, it is a paradox that mainly the fish processing industry has been subjected to environmental regulations. Recommendation and Perspective Future scenarios indicate that energy consumption will remain one of the most important environmental aspects in the fishing stage – partly due to regulations of anti-fouling biocides (e.g. TBT) and partly because of the continued depletion of fish stocks. From an environmental policy perspective, it is therefore recommended to broaden the perspective of existing fishery regulations and increase the focus on fishing gear and energy in the primary production (fishing stage).     

Lymphocyte Sensitization to Carcinoembryonic Antigen (Gold) With Special Reference to Multiple Sclerosis

Lymphocytes from patients with multiple sclerosis are sensitized to carcinoembryonic antigen (C.E.A.) in almost the same degree as are those from subjects with cancer. During pregnancy and the early puerperium there is an even higher degree of cellular sensitization to C.E.A. Patients with neurological diseases other than multiple sclerosis also show significant sensitization to C.E.A. though of less degree than do those with multiple sclerosis. Sensitization to C.E.A. is thus not specifically characteristic of cancer. The unexpected sensitization in multiple sclerosis may be associated with the pronounced degree of gliosis found in that condition.     

Nonstructural Chromosome Differentiation among Wheat Cultivars, with Special Reference to Differentiation of Chromosomes in Related Species

Wheat cultivar Chinese Spring (Triticum aestivum L. em. Thell.) was crossed with cultivars Hope, Cheyenne and Timstein. In all three hybrids, the frequencies of pollen mother cells (PMCs) with univalents at metaphase I (MI) were higher than those in the parental cultivars. No multivalents were observed in the hybrids, indicating that the cultivars do not differ by translocations. Thirty-one Chinese Spring telosomic lines were then crossed with substitution lines in which single chromosomes of the three cultivars were substituted for their Chinese Spring homologues. The telosomic lines were also crossed with Chinese Spring. Data were collected on the frequencies (% of PMCs) of pairing of the telesomes with their homologues at MI and the regularity of pairing of the remaining 20 pairs of Chinese Spring chromosomes in the monotelodisomics obtained from these crosses. The reduced MI pairing in the intercultivar hybrids was caused primarily by chromosome differentiation, rather than by specific genes. Because the differentiation involved a large part of the chromosome complement in each hybrid, it was concluded that it could not be caused by structural changes such as inversions or translocations. In each case, the differentiation appeared to be unevenly distributed among the three wheat genomes. It is proposed that the same kind of differentiation, although of greater magnitude, differentiates homoeologous chromosomes and is responsible, together with structural differentiation, for poor chromosome pairing in interspecific hybrids.     

Anatomy and Taxonomy of Phonorhynchus Graff (Turbellaria), with Special Reference to P. helgolandicus (Mecznikow)

Previous records of the anatomy of the genital apparatus in Phonorhynchus are reviewed and in part revised. The evolutionary transformation of the prostatic stylet of P. helgolandicus is outlined and a series of forms is described, based on the shape of that stylet.     

Stem Anatomy of Uebelmannia (Cactaceae) — with Special Reference to Uebelmannia gummifera

The three species of Uebelmannia (Cactaceae: Cactoideae; endemic to Minas Cerais, Brazil) are noteworthy for their tough, bumpy stem surface and the presence of conspicuous mucilage cavities restricted to the outer part of the stems. The anatomy of the mature structures and their ontogeny was investigated from microtome sections. The uncommon surface relief is caused by groups of unequally elongated hypodermis cells. The mucilage cavities consist of solitary and considerably enlarged mucilage cells (U.buiningii and U. pectinifera). In U.gummifera groups of mucilage cells disintegrate and form large cavities which are finally united into longitudinal ducts. A comparison of these stem features with species of the superficially similar genera Islaya and Wigginsia (representing tribe Notocacteae), does not indicate a close phylogenetic relationship between Uebelmannia and members of tribe Notocacteae. Finally, some short comments touch on the adaptational aspect of the characteristic stem features of Uebelmannia.     

Euspermatozoa,Paraspermatozoa and Spermatozeugmata of Littoraria (Palustorina) articulata (Prosobranchia: Caenogastropoda) with Special Reference to the Pseudotrich

Abstract Paraspermatozoa and euspermatozoa of the littorinid gastropod Littoraria (Palustorina) articulata are examined using transmission electron microscopy and light microscopy. In the seminal vesicle, both sperm types occur, either as free cells or organized into spermatozeugmata. It is shown that the elongate (120–140 μm), flagellum-like component of the paraspermatozoon is in fact a tubular extension of the plasma membrane which encloses granular material but no axonemes or microtubules. This structure, here termed the pseudotrich, shows no evidence of motility and its function remains obscure. The main body region of the paraspermatozoon (length 32–36 μm) contains numerous spherical vesicles, scattered mitochondria, one or two large, rod-shaped bodies (length 20–24 μm) and a fusiform, granular body (containing DNA; probably a modified nucleus). The rod-shaped bodies, granular body and surrounding matrix are contained by a common membrane, and are therefore separated from other contents of the paraspermatozoon. In each spermatozeugma, euspermatozoa are attached via the tips of their acrosomes to the paraspermatozoan body at the opposite end to the pseudotrich. Euspermatozoa exhibit a conical acrosomal complex (with axial rod and basal plate), a tubular nucleus sheathing the axoneme, a midpiece (5–6 helical mitochondrial elements sheathing the axoneme), an annulus (with two rings), a glycogen piece and an end piece (total sperm length 268–272 μm). The euspermatozoa of L. articulata are similar to those of most littorinids and many other caenogastropods. The presence of a pseudotrich in the paraspermatozoon appears to be restricted to the subgenus Palustorina.     

A New LCA Methodology of Technology Evolution (TE-LCA) and its Application to the Production of Ammonia (1950-2000) (8 pp)

Goal, Scope and Background

This paper presents a new LCA method of technology evolution (TE-LCA), and its application to the production of ammonia, the second largest chemical product in the world, over the last fifty years. The TE-LCA of a chemical process is the procedure in which historical information on a process, mainly the evolution of technical parameters, is translated by simulation to mass and energy balances as a function of time. These mass and energy balances are then transformed into environmental impact indicators using common LCA approaches. Finally, the evolution of environmental impact resulting from the investigated process can be related to its technical and other, i.e. legislative, developments.

Methods

The technological evolution of the production of ammonia was compiled according to three basic sources of information: patents, publications and industry data. From these sources in a first step, the major technological advances of the process were identified as a function of time delivering different process variants that were modelled using the simulation software Aspen Plus®. In a second step, the evolution of environmental regulations is studied. For those energy related emissions that were regulated, e.g. SOx and NOx, it was assumed that threshold values defined in legislation were realized immediately. The aggregation of both steps allows the calculation of the emissions resulting from the production (cradle to gate view) of the investigated chemical as a function of time.

Results and Discussion

The application of the TE-LCA to the production of ammonia revealed when and to which extent technological and legislative developments resulted in the reduction of energy related emissions in the production of this chemical compound. Overall, the reduction of emissions from ammonia production was highly influenced by the technological development and only to a lower extent by environmental regulations.

Conclusion

The results obtained from the TE-LCA method is useful to reveal how the environmental performance of a process developed in the past and to identify the reasons for this development. The investigated case study of ammonia production shows that investment in technological development also paid off in terms of being ahead of tightened environmental legislation that might bear potential cost consequences such as carbon dioxide tax.

Outlook

The presented method can be easily extended by including an economic analysis, which provides additional information on why certain technological developments were enforced and which the economic consequences of changes in environmental legislation were. The new methodology has to be applied to additional case studies, i.e. to other chemical sectors than basic chemicals and to other branches than chemicals. In other chemical sectors, toxic emissions from the production process might have to be considered and trade-offs between these and the overall energy consumption might result.     

Karyological Differentiation in Sapindaceae with Special Reference to Serjania and Cardiospermum

New chromosome counts for 9 species and 2 genera of Sapindaceae are presented and compared with a review of all available chromosome numbers of the family. In 4 species diploid numbers differing from previous reports are found. In 4 species of the tribe Paullinieae (S. diversiflora, S. subdentata, C. grandiflorum and C. halicacabum) detailed studies on interphase nucleus structure, condensing behaviour and chromosome banding patterns are presented. The karyological differentiation of Paullinieae is generally characterized by dysploid reduction of chromosome numbers and the increase of chromosome size. Sequential staining of nuclei with CMA/DAPI and Giemsa-C-banding demonstrates diversification of constitutive heterochromatin (= hc) and different types of chromatin organization in Serjania and Cardiospermum. The obvious lack of polyploid series and the karyological evolution within the family is discussed. The outstanding small genome size found in Cardiospermum halicacabum is considered to be due to a secondary loss of DNA in the course of the change to herbaceous growth.