A functional polymorphism in the promoter/enhancer region of the<Emphasis Type="Italic"> FOXP3/Scurfin</Emphasis> gene associated with type 1 diabetes

FOXP3/Scurfin, a member of forkhead/winged-helix proteins, is involved in the regulation of T-cell activation, and essential for normal immune homeostasis. The FOXP3/Scurfin gene is located on chromosome Xp11.23, which includes one of the type 1 diabetes susceptible loci. Therefore, we investigated whether the human FOXP3/Scurfin gene might be a new candidate gene for type 1 diabetes. We first screened the human FOXP3/Scurfin gene for microsatellite and single nucleotide polymorphisms. Next, we performed an association study between the FOXP3/Scurfin gene and type 1 diabetes. Then, the evaluation of promoter/enhancer activity of the intron with (GT)(n) polymorphism was performed by dual luciferase reporter assay. We demonstrated two regions contained microsatellite polymorphisms; one was (GT)(n), located on intron zero and the other (TC)(n) on intron 5, which were under linkage-disequilibrium. The (GT)(15) allele showed a significantly higher frequency in patients with type 1 diabetes than in controls (43.1% vs 32.6%, P=0.0027). The genotype frequencies of (GT)(15)/(GT)(15) in female patients and of (GT)(15) in male patients tended to be higher than those in female ( P=0.064) and male ( P=0.061) controls, respectively. A significant difference in the enhancer activity between (GT)(15) and (GT)(16) dinucleotide repeats was detected. In conclusion, the FOXP3/Scurfin gene appears to confer a significant susceptibility to type 1 diabetes in the Japanese population.     

A high-resolution linkage-disequilibrium map of the human major histocompatibility complex and first generation of tag single-nucleotide polymorphisms

Autoimmune, inflammatory, and infectious diseases present a major burden to human health and are frequently associated with loci in the human major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Here, we report a high-resolution (1.9 kb) linkage-disequilibrium (LD) map of a 4.46-Mb fragment containing the MHC in U.S. pedigrees with northern and western European ancestry collected by the Centre d'Etude du Polymorphisme Humain (CEPH) and the first generation of haplotype tag single-nucleotide polymorphisms (tagSNPs) that provide up to a fivefold increase in genotyping efficiency for all future MHC-linked disease-association studies. The data confirm previously identified recombination hotspots in the class II region and allow the prediction of numerous novel hotspots in the class I and class III regions. The region of longest LD maps outside the classic MHC to the extended class I region spanning the MHC-linked olfactory-receptor gene cluster. The extended haplotype homozygosity analysis for recent positive selection shows that all 14 outlying haplotype variants map to a single extended haplotype, which most commonly bears HLA-DRB1*1501. The SNP data, haplotype blocks, and tagSNPs analysis reported here have been entered into a multidimensional Web-based database (GLOVAR), where they can be accessed and viewed in the context of relevant genome annotation. This LD map allowed us to give coordinates for the extremely variable LD structure underlying the MHC.     

Immunohistochemical expression of p53 in breast carcinoma is associated with the intron 1 BglII polymorphism of the p53 gene

Breast carcinoma is a public health problem worldwide. It is known that both genetic and environmental factors are important for breast carcinogenesis and that structural and/or functional alterations at p53 gene are commonly observed in breast tumors. In addition, polymorphisms of several genes in either their coding or non-coding sequences have been found related to cancer risk and/or clinicopathological characteristics of tumors. In this study we have evaluated the intron 1 BglII polymorphism of the p53 gene with a PCR-based approach in 117 cases of breast cancer and 102 healthy women and its association with the immunohistochemical expression of p53 in the tumors. The results showed that the presence of the polymorphism (allele 2) is highly associated with the tumor expression of p53 (p<0.0001) and that there is a trend for increased frequency of allele 2 in cases than in controls (p=0.2376). These data suggest that the germ-line variation in the intron 1 of the p53 gene could produce functional or structural changes of the protein that is reflected by its abnormal expression.     

Linkage disequilibrium in the neurofibromatosis 1 (NF1) region: implications for gene mapping.

To test the usefulness of linkage disequilibrium for gene mapping, we compared physical distances and linkage disequilibrium among eight RFLPs in the neurofibromatosis 1 (NF1) region. Seven of the polymorphisms span most of the NF1 gene, while the remaining polymorphism lies approximately 70 kb 3' to a stop codon in exon 49. By using Centre d'Etude du Polymorphisme Humain (CEPH) kindreds, 91-110 unrelated parents were genotyped. A high degree of disequilibrium is maintained among the seven intragenic polymorphisms (r > .82, P < 10(-7)), even though they are separated by as much as 340 kb. The 3' polymorphism is only 68 kb distal to the next polymorphism, but disequilibrium between the 3' polymorphism and all others is comparatively low (magnitude of 4 < .33, P values .27-.001). This result was replicated in three sets of unrelated kindreds: the Utah CEPH families, the non-Utah CEPH families, and an independent set of NF1 families. Trigenic, quadrigenic, three-locus, and four-locus disequilibrium measures were also estimated. There was little evidence of higher-order linkage disequilibrium. As expected for a disease with multiple mutations, no disequilibrium was observed between the disease gene and any of the RFLPs. The observed pattern of high disequilibrium within the gene and a loss of disequilibrium 3' to the stop codon could have implications for gene mapping studies. These are discussed, and guidelines for linkage disequilibrium studies are suggested.     

Linkage disequilibrium predicts physical distance in the adenomatous polyposis coli region.

To test the reliability of linkage-disequilibrium analysis for gene mapping, we compared physical distance and linkage disequilibrium among seven polymorphisms in the adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) region on chromosome 5. Three of them lie within the APC gene, and two lie within the nearby MCC (mutated in colon cancer) gene. One polymorphism lies between the two genes, and one is likely to be 5' of MCC. Five of these polymorphisms are newly reported. All polymorphisms were typed in the CEPH kindreds, yielding 179-205 unrelated two-locus haplotypes. Linkage disequilibrium between each pair of polymorphisms is highly correlated with physical distance in this 550-kb region (correlation coefficient -.80, P < .006). This result is replicated in both the Utah and non-Utah CEPH kindreds. There is a tendency for greater disequilibrium among pairs of polymorphisms located within the same gene than among other pairs of polymorphisms. Trigenic, quadrigenic, three-locus, and four-locus disequilibrium measures were also estimated, but these measures revealed much less disequilibrium than did the two-locus disequilibrium measures. A review of 19 published disequilibrium studies, including this one, shows that linkage disequilibrium nearly always correlates significantly with physical distance in genomic regions > 50-60 kb but that it does not do so in smaller genomic regions. We show that this agrees with theoretical predictions. This finding helps to resolve controversies regarding the use of disequilibrium for inferring gene order. Disequilibrium mapping is unlikely to predict gene order correctly in regions < 50-60 kb in size but can often be applied successfully in regions of 50-500 kb or so in size. It is convenient that this is the range in which other mapping techniques, including chromosome walking and linkage mapping, become difficult.     

Genetic polymorphisms of <Emphasis Type="Italic">XRCC1</Emphasis> (at codons 194 and 399) in Shiraz population (Fars province,southern Iran)

Objective Several potential functional polymorphisms in the DNA base excision repair gene X-ray repair cross-complementing group 1 (XRCC1) have been reported. There has been no information on interindividual variability of Arg194Trp and Arg399Gln polymorphisms of XRCC1 in the Iranian population. Due to the association between the polymorphisms of XRCC1 and the risk of some types of cancers, the present study was done. Methods The genetic polymorphisms of XRCC1 were detected by PCR-based method in 707 healthy individuals from Shiraz population, (Fars province, southern Iran). Results Considering that there was no statistically significant difference between males and females, the sex groups were pooled. The frequencies of 194Trp and 399Gln alleles were 9.05% and 33.95%, respectively. When both polymorphisms were considered, the linkage-disequilibrium was observed (D′ = 0.8986, r ² = 0.0413, P < 0.00001). Conclusion The present results indicated that the allelic frequencies in Iranian populations showed intermediate frequencies in comparison with European and other Asian countries.     

牙鲆MyoD基因单核苷酸多态性位点的筛选

运用PCR-SSCP技术研究100尾牙鲆(Paralichthys olivaceus)MyoD基因的单核苷酸多态性(Single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNPs), 并将筛选到的突变位点与牙鲆生长性状进行相关性分析。结果表明, 在外显子1和内含子1上存在3个SNPs, 在外显子1 (MyoD2)基因座发现3种基因型AA、AB和BB, G863A突变, 属于同义突变。在内含子MyoD4基因座检测到DD、FF、CD、CE、DE和DF型个体。利用最小二乘法研究MyoD基因多态性位点对牙鲆生长性状的影响。结果表明, 外显子1的SNPs对生长性状无显著影响(P0.05)。内含子1的SNPs对牙鲆的生长性状影响均显著(P0.05)。研究结果为SNPs位点与牙鲆生长性能关联分析奠定了基础。       

Genotyping of five single nucleotide polymorphisms in the OCA2 and HERC2 genes associated with blue‐brown eye color in the Japanese population

Human eye color is a polymorphic phenotype influenced by multiple genes. It has recently been reported that three single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within intron 1 of the OCA2 gene (rs7495174, rs4778241, rs4778138) and two SNPs in intron 86 (rs12913832) and the 3′ UTR region (rs1129038) of the HERC2 gene—located in the upstream of the OCA2 locus —have a high statistical association with human eye color. The present study is the first to examine in detail the genotype and haplotype frequencies for these five SNPs in an Asian (Japanese) population (n = 523) comprising solely brown‐eyed individuals. Comparison of the genotype and haplotype distributions in Japanese with those in African and European subjects revealed significant differences between Japanese and other populations. Analysis of haplotypes consisting of four SNPs at the HERC2‐OCA2 locus (rs12913832/rs7495174/rs4778241/rs4778138) showed that the most frequent haplotype in the Japanese population is A‐GAG (0.568), while the frequency of this haplotype is rather low in the European population, even in the brown‐eyed group (0.167). The haplotype distribution in the Japanese population was significantly different from that in the brown‐eyed European group (F_ST = 0.18915). Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mapping of complex traits by single-nucleotide polymorphisms.

Molecular geneticists are developing the third-generation human genome map with single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which can be assayed via chip-based microarrays. One use of these SNP markers is the ability to locate loci that may be responsible for complex traits, via linkage/linkage-disequilibrium analysis. In this communication, we describe a semiparametric method for combined linkage/linkage-disequilibrium analysis using SNP markers. Asymptotic results are obtained for the estimated parameters, and the finite-sample properties are evaluated via a simulation study. We also applied this technique to a simulated genome-scan experiment for mapping a complex trait with two major genes. This experiment shows that separate linkage and linkage-disequilibrium analyses correctly detected the signals of both major genes; but the rates of false-positive signals seem high. When linkage and linkage-disequilibrium signals were combined, the analysis yielded much stronger and clearer signals for the presence of two major genes than did two separate analyses.     

A novel and very peculiar HincII polymorphism in the 5' region of the human neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) gene

We report a HincII polymorphism in the 5' end of the neurofibromatosis type 1 gene (NF1) as detected with a probe made of exons 1 to 4a (nucleotides 2 to 401 of the cDNA). This HincII site is most probably in an intron. Evidence presented suggests the probe reveals not one but two similar polymorphisms.     

Genetic mapping of the beta 1 GABA receptor gene to human chromosome 4, using a tetranucleotide repeat polymorphism.

As more coding loci for functional human genes are described, there is a growing need to identify DNA polymorphisms in specific genes. By examining DNA sequences within the introns of the beta 1 subunit of the gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor gene, GABARB1, we found a tetranucleotide repeat sequence (GATA). Amplification of this region by using PCR revealed seven alleles and a high degree of polymorphism (PIC = .75) in human populations. DNAs from the CEPH families were typed for the GABARB1 intron polymorphism and were analyzed with respect to 20 linked markers on chromosome 4. The results permit placement of GABARB1 on the linkage map of chromosome 4, between D4S104 and ALB. These results affirm that sequence analysis of noncoding segments included within or adjacent to functional genes has value as a strategy to detect highly informative polymorphisms.     

New founder haplotypes at the myotonic dystrophy locus in southern Africa.

The association between normal alleles at the CTG repeat and two nearby polymorphisms in the myotonin protein kinase gene, the Alu insertion/deletion polymorphism and the myotonic dystrophy kinase (DMK)(G/T) intron 9/HinfI polymorphism, has been analyzed in South African Negroids, a population in which myotonic dystrophy (DM) has not been described. South African Negroids have a CTG allelic distribution that is significantly different from that in Caucasoids and Japanese: the CTG repeat lengths of > or = 19 are very rare. The striking linkage disequilibrium between specific alleles at the Alu polymorphism (Alu(ins) and Alu(del)), the HinfI polymorphism (HinfI-1 and HinfI-2), and the CTG repeat polymorphism seen in Caucasoid (Europeans and Canadians) populations was also found in the South African Negroid population. Numerous haplotypes, not previously described in Europeans, were, however, found. It thus seems likely that only a small number of these "African" chromosomes were present in the progenitors of all non-African peoples. These data provide support for the "out of Africa" model for the origin of modern humans and suggest that the rare ancestral DM mutation event may have occurred after the migration from Africa, hence the absence of DM in sub-Saharan Negroid peoples.     

A strategy for constructing high-resolution genetic maps of the human genome: a genetic map of chromosome 17p, ordered with meiotic breakpoint-mapping panels.

Genetic linkage analyses with genotypic data obtained from four CEPH reference families initially assigned 24 new PCR-based markers to chromosome 17 and located the markers at specific intervals of an existing genetic map of chromosome 17p. Each marker was additionally genotyped with an ordered set of obligate, phase-known recombinant chromosomes. The breakpoint-mapping panels for each family consisted of two parents, one sib with a nonrecombinant chromosome, and one or more sibs with obligate recombinant chromosomes. The relative order of markers was determined by sorting segregation patterns of new markers and ordered anchor markers and by minimizing double-recombination events. Consistency of segregation patterns with multiple flanking loci constituted support for order. A genetic map of chromosome 17p was completed with 39 markers in 23 clusters, with an average space of 3 cM between clusters. The collection of informative genotypes was highly efficient, requiring fivefold fewer genotypes than would be collected with all the CEPH families. Given the availability of large numbers of highly informative PCR-based markers, meiotic breakpoint mapping should facilitate construction of a human genomic map with 1-cM resolution.     

Nucleotide variation,haplotype structure,and association with end-stage renal disease of the human interleukin-1 gene cluster

A dense gene-based SNP map was constructed across a 360-kb region containing the interleukin-1 gene cluster (IL1A, IL1B, and IL1RN), focusing on IL1RN. In total, 95 polymorphisms were confirmed or identified primarily by direct sequencing. Polymorphisms were precisely mapped to completed BAC and genomic sequences spanning this region. The polymorphisms were typed in 443 case-control subjects from Caucasian and African American groups. Consecutive pair-wise marker linkage disequilibrium was not strictly correlated with distance and ranged from D'=0.0079 to 1.000 and D'=0.0521 to 1.0000 in Caucasians and African Americans, respectively. Single markers and haplotypes in IL1 cluster genes were evaluated for association with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Eleven SNPs show some evidence of association with ESRD, with the strongest associations in two IL1A variants, one SNP, rs1516792-3, in intron 5 (p=0.0015) and a 4-bp insertion/deletion within the 3'UTR, rs16347-2 (p=0.0024), among African Americans with non-T2DM-associated ESRD.     

Inheritance of nuclear DNA markers in gynogenetic haploid pink salmon

We describe the inheritance of 460 PCR-based loci in the polyploid-derived pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) genome using gynogenetic haploid embryos. We detected a length polymorphism in a growth hormone gene (GH-2) intron that is caused by an 81 bp insertion homologous to the 3' end of the salmonid short interspersed repetitive element (SINE) SmaI. Such insertion polymorphisms within species bring into question the use of SINEs as phylogenetic markers. We confirmed that a microsatellite locus encodes a PCR-null allele that is responsible for an apparent deficit of heterozygotes in a population sample from Prince William Sound. Another set of microsatellite primers amplified alleles of the same molecular weight from both loci of a duplicated pair. In our analysis of several PCR-based multilocus techniques, we failed to detect evidence of comigrating fragments produced by duplicated loci. Segregation analysis of PCR-based markers using gynogenetic haploid embryos ensures that the interpretation of molecular variation is not complicated by heterozygosity, diploidy, or gene duplication. We urge investigators to test the inheritance of polymorphisms in salmonids prior to using them to measure genetic variation.     

Molecular and functional characterization of common polymorphisms in HERG (KCNH2) potassium channels

Long QT syndrome (LQTS) is a cardiac repolarization disorder that can lead to arrhythmias and sudden death. Chromosome 7-linked inherited LQTS (LQT2) is caused by mutations in human ether-a-go-go-related gene (HERG; KCNH2), whereas drug-induced LQTS is caused primarily by HERG channel block. Many common polymorphisms are functionally silent and have been traditionally regarded as benign and without physiological consequence. However, the identification of common nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (nSNPs; i.e., amino-acid coding variants) with functional phenotypes in the SCN5A Na(+) channel and MiRP1 K(+) channel beta-subunit have challenged this viewpoint. In this report, we test the hypothesis that common missense HERG polymorphisms alter channel physiology. Comprehensive mutational analysis of HERG was performed on genomic DNA derived from a population-based cohort of sudden infant death syndrome and two reference allele cohorts derived from 100 African American and 100 Caucasian individuals. Amino acid-encoding variants were considered common polymorphisms if they were present in at least two of the three study cohorts with an allelic frequency >0.5%. Four nSNPs were identified: K897T, P967L, R1047L, and Q1068R. Wild-type (WT) and polymorphic channels were heterologously expressed in human embryonic kidney cells, and biochemical and voltage-clamp techniques were used to characterize their functional properties. All channel types were processed similarly, but several electrophysiological differences were identified: 1) K897T current density was lower than the other polymorphic channels; 2) K897T channels activated at more negative potentials than WT and R1047L; 3) K897T and Q1068R channels inactivated and recovered from inactivation faster than WT, P967L, and R1047L channels; and 4) K897T channels showed subtle differences compared with WT channels when stimulated with an action potential waveform. In contrast to K897T and Q1068R channels, P967L and R1047L channels were electrophysiologically indistinguishable from WT channels. All HERG channels had similar sensitivity to block by cisapride. Therefore, some HERG polymorphic channels are electrophysiologically different from WT channels.     

Genome-wide association study of white blood cell count in 16,388 African Americans: the continental origins and genetic epidemiology network (COGENT)

Total white blood cell (WBC) and neutrophil counts are lower among individuals of African descent due to the common African-derived "null" variant of the Duffy Antigen Receptor for Chemokines (DARC) gene. Additional common genetic polymorphisms were recently associated with total WBC and WBC sub-type levels in European and Japanese populations. No additional loci that account for WBC variability have been identified in African Americans. In order to address this, we performed a large genome-wide association study (GWAS) of total WBC and cell subtype counts in 16,388 African-American participants from 7 population-based cohorts available in the Continental Origins and Genetic Epidemiology Network. In addition to the DARC locus on chromosome 1q23, we identified two other regions (chromosomes 4q13 and 16q22) associated with WBC in African Americans (P<2.5×10(-8)). The lead SNP (rs9131) on chromosome 4q13 is located in the CXCL2 gene, which encodes a chemotactic cytokine for polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Independent evidence of the novel CXCL2 association with WBC was present in 3,551 Hispanic Americans, 14,767 Japanese, and 19,509 European Americans. The index SNP (rs12149261) on chromosome 16q22 associated with WBC count is located in a large inter-chromosomal segmental duplication encompassing part of the hydrocephalus inducing homolog (HYDIN) gene. We demonstrate that the chromosome 16q22 association finding is most likely due to a genotyping artifact as a consequence of sequence similarity between duplicated regions on chromosomes 16q22 and 1q21. Among the WBC loci recently identified in European or Japanese populations, replication was observed in our African-American meta-analysis for rs445 of CDK6 on chromosome 7q21 and rs4065321 of PSMD3-CSF3 region on chromosome 17q21. In summary, the CXCL2, CDK6, and PSMD3-CSF3 regions are associated with WBC count in African American and other populations. We also demonstrate that large inter-chromosomal duplications can result in false positive associations in GWAS.