Raptors rehabilitated in Iowa during 1986 and 1987: a retrospective study

A retrospective study was conducted on 60 raptors representing 13 species treated at the Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine during 1986-1987. Eight species (31 individuals) were Falconiformes and five species (29 individuals) were Strigiformes. Seventy-five percent of all injuries were due to trauma and 65% of these were injuries arising from human activity, including car collisions (28%), shooting (17%) and trapping (11%). Thirty-four percent of all raptors admitted were treated and released, 25% were permanently crippled and 41% died during treatment or were euthanized. Data from this study implicate trauma resulting from human activity as a major reason for injury in free-ranging raptors presented for treatment in Iowa.     

Morbidity and mortality of reptiles admitted to the Wildlife Center of Virginia, 1991 to 2000

Medical records from 694 reptiles admitted to the Wildlife Center of Virginia (WCV; Waynesboro, Virginia, USA) from 1991 to 2000 were reviewed to determine causes of morbidity and mortality. Eighteen species were represented but the majority of cases were four species; eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina) (66%), eastern painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) (11%), common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) (10%), and rat snake (Elaphe sp.) (6%). There was a significant increase in reptile cases during the study period both in absolute number and in proportion to the total caseload. Trauma (74%) was the most frequent cause of morbidity and mortality followed by unknown or undetermined (13%), aural abscessation (7%), infectious diseases (2%), and one nutritional disorder (0.1%). In addition, 3% of the cases were healthy animals that had been removed from the wild and consequently brought to the WCV. Causes of morbidity and mortality differed between the four most numerous species. Impact with a motor vehicle was the most frequent cause of trauma for eastern box turtles, eastern painted turtles, and common snapping turtles; however, garden-equipment-related trauma was the most frequent cause for rat snakes. Aural abscessation was only seen in eastern box turtles. Eighty percent of cases occurred between May and September and 65% occurred within the five counties closest to the WCV. The majority of morbidity and mortality was the result of human activities. The expanding human population in Virginia likely will continue to have an impact on the health of wild reptiles.     

Causes,temporal trends,and the effects of urbanization on admissions of wild raptors to rehabilitation centers in England and Wales

Data from wildlife rehabilitation centers (WRCs) can provide on‐the‐ground records of causes of raptor morbidity and mortality, allowing threat patterns to be explored throughout time and space. We provide an overview of native raptor admissions to four WRCs in England and Wales, quantifying the main causes of morbidity and mortality, trends over time, and associations between threats and urbanization between 2001 and 2019. Throughout the study period, 14 raptor species were admitted totalling 3305 admission records. The Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo; 31%) and Tawny Owl (Strix aluco; 29%) were most numerous. Relative to the proportion of breeding individuals in Britain and Ireland, Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus), Little Owls (Athene noctua), and Western Barn Owls (Tyto alba) were over‐represented in the admissions data by 103%, 73%, and 69%, respectively. Contrastingly Northern Long‐eared Owls (Asio otus), Western Marsh Harriers (Circus aeruginosus), and Merlin (Falco columbarius) were under‐represented by 187%, 163%, and 126%, respectively. Across all species, vehicle collisions were the most frequent anthropogenic admission cause (22%), and orphaned young birds (10%) were most frequent natural cause. Mortality rate was highest for infection/parasite admissions (90%), whereas orphaned birds experienced lowest mortality rates (16%). For one WRC, there was a decline in admissions over the study period. Red Kite (Milvus milvus) admissions increased over time, whereas Common Buzzard and Common Kestrel admissions declined. There were significant declines in the relative proportion of persecution and metabolic admissions and an increase in orphaned birds. Urban areas were positively associated with persecution, building collisions, and unknown trauma admissions, whereas vehicle collisions were associated with more rural areas. Many threats persist for raptors in England and Wales, however, have not changed substantially over the past two decades. Threats associated with urban areas, such as building collisions, may increase over time in line with human population growth and subsequent urban expansion.     

Wildlife mortality on roads crossing a protected area: The case of Dadia-Lefkimi-Soufli National Park in north-eastern Greece

Wildlife-vehicle collisions have been identified as an important ecological problem in most countries around the world, during the last decades. In the present work we examined the impacts on wildlife arising from two road categories crossing and adjoining the Dadia-Lefkimi-Soufli National Park (DLS NP), in north-eastern Greece. The study area is consisted of one of the most diverse fauna in Europe, with 202 bird species including 36 out of 38 European diurnal raptors, 60–65 mammal species, 29 reptiles and 13 amphibians. Vehicle collisions was the highest mortality factor in the study (83.9%) among five recorded categories, poison, electrocution, drowning, vehicle collisions and unidentified causes. 204 vehicle casualties were recorded out of 243 in total. Mammals (90.7%) were the vertebrates that mainly suffered from road mortality, including 11 species. The stone marten Martes foina contributed with the highest numbers, followed by the red fox Vulpes vulpes, the hedgehog Erinaceus roumanicus and the wild cat Felis silvestris. Although the contribution of birds on the road casualties was low, nine species were identified, including five diurnal and four nocturnal species, with raptors predominating. Most road casualties were observed in the national road network (71.6%), mainly during holidays (58.3%). Traffic volume, road category, season and blind bend were all dominant factors with different effects determining high wildlife-vehicle collision values. Mitigation measures that can reduce the harmful effects of roads on wildlife in the DLS NP are also discussed.     

Epidemiology, species distribution, antifungal susceptibility and outcome of nosocomial candidemia in a tertiary care hospital in Italy

Candida is an important cause of bloodstream infections (BSI), causing significant mortality and morbidity in health care settings. From January 2008 to December 2010 all consecutive patients who developed candidemia at San Martino University Hospital, Italy were enrolled in the study. A total of 348 episodes of candidaemia were identified during the study period (January 2008-December 2010), with an incidence of 1,73 episodes/1000 admissions. Globally, albicans and non-albicans species caused around 50% of the cases each. Non-albicans included Candida parapsilosis (28.4%), Candida glabrata (9.5%), Candida tropicalis (6.6%), and Candida krusei (2.6%). Out of 324 evaluable patients, 141 (43.5%) died within 30 days from the onset of candidemia. C. parapsilosis candidemia was associated with the lowest mortality rate (36.2%). In contrast, patients with C. krusei BSI had the highest mortality rate (55.5%) in this cohort. Regarding the crude mortality in the different units, patients in Internal Medicine wards had the highest mortality rate (54.1%), followed by patients in ICU and Hemato-Oncology wards (47.6%).This report shows that candidemia is a significant source of morbidity in Italy, with a substantial burden of disease, mortality, and likely high associated costs. Although our high rates of candidemia may be related to high rates of BSI in general in Italian public hospitals, reasons for these high rates are not clear and warrant further study. Determining factors associated with these high rates may lead to identifying measures that can help to prevent disease.     

Feline immunodeficiency virus in puma: Estimation of force of infection reveals insights into transmission

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The effects of raptor predation on wintering wader populations at the Tyningharne estuary, southeast Scotland

Raptor predation on waders was studied by direct observation of raptors hunting a known wader population and subsequent recovery of dead waders. In each of three winters, raptor predation was shown to be the most significant cause of mortality in most small wader species, Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus , Merlins Falco columbarius and Peregrines F. pere-grinus attacked waders with a success rate of 11.6%. 8.8% and 6.8%, respectively. Most waders attacked or found dead were Redshank Tringa totanus and Dunlin Calidris alpina; most were killed by Sparrowhawks. Kleptoparasitism of raptors carrying prey by Carrion Crows Corvus corone significantly increased the winter mortality of some waders. Redshank populations were most affected by raptor predation: over 50% of the total population (which was found to be closed during most of the winter) and over 90% of the juvenile population were taken in two winters: juvenites were more likely to be killed by raptors.     

Susceptibility of Tree Seedlings to Biotic and Abiotic Hazards in the Understory of a Moist Tropical Forest in Panama

We evaluated temporal patterns of seedling survival of eight Neotropical tree species generated under multiple abiotic and biotic hazards (vertebrates, disease, litterfall) in the forest understory on Barro Colorado Island, Panama. Seedlings were transplanted at first leaf expansion in low densities along a 6-km transect and damage and mortality were recorded for 1 yr. We also planted and monitored small and large artificial seedlings to estimate physical disturbance regimes. During 0–2 mo after transplant, vertebrate consumers of reserve cotyledons caused high mortality of real seedlings, but little damage to artificial seedlings. On real seedlings after 2 mo, disease became an important agent of mortality, despite a decrease in overall mortality rates. Damage by litterfall remained relatively low during the 1-yr study period. Survival ranks among species showed ontogenetic shifts over time, as species changed susceptibility to the mortality agents. Survival after 2 mo was positively correlated with stem toughness, not because species with tough stems were less likely to receive mechanical damage, but because they survived better after receiving mechanical damage. Within each transplant station, artificial seedlings were not good predictors of litterfall damage experienced by real seedlings. Forest-wide litterfall damage level, however, was similar for both real and artificial seedlings ( ca 10%/yr), a moderate level compared to other tropical forests. In conclusion, species traits including biomechanical traits interact to create complex temporal patterns of first year seedling survival, resulting in ontogenetic shifts that largely reflect changes in the relative importance of vertebrate consumers relative to other hazards.     

四川省猛禽多样性及迁徙路线

基于文献、标本馆数据和野外调查记录, 共收集四川省猛禽分布记录数据2,410条, 依此分析了四川省猛禽的分布与迁徙路线。四川省猛禽记录有56种(76种及亚种), 其中隼形目3科41种, 占全国隼形目鸟类总数的64.06%; 鸮形目2科15种, 占全国鸮形目鸟类总数的48.39%; 国家I级重点保护猛禽5种。四川省猛禽总体呈现西部多东部少的格局, 记录最多的平武县有32种; 在垂直分布上以1,000-3,500 m海拔段物种丰富度最高。在四川省境内具有迁徙习性的猛禽有19种, 其中金堂县迁徙猛禽最多。主要迁移路线有3条: 1条属于中亚-印度迁徙路线, 经过四川省西北角的石渠和德格县; 另外2条属东亚-澳大利亚迁徙路线, 其中1条沿四川省盆地西缘的岷山-邛崃山-凉山一线向南到我国云南、缅甸; 另外1条沿四川北部岷山至金堂和南充一线向东南至重庆、贵州。本研究为保护四川猛禽资源和了解猛禽迁徙路线提供了参考。     

Distribution and Pathogenicity of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in Boreal Toads from the Grand Teton Area of Western Wyoming

The pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which causes the skin disease chytridiomycosis, has been linked to amphibian population declines and extinctions worldwide. Bd has been implicated in recent declines of boreal toads, Bufo boreas boreas, in Colorado but populations of boreal toads in western Wyoming have high prevalence of Bd without suffering catastrophic mortality. In a field and laboratory study, we investigated the prevalence of Bd in boreal toads from the Grand Teton ecosystem (GRTE) in Wyoming and tested the pathogenicity of Bd to these toads in several environments. The pathogen was present in breeding adults at all 10 sites sampled, with a mean prevalence of 67%. In an experiment with juvenile toadlets housed individually in wet environments, 10⁶ zoospores of Bd isolated from GRTE caused lethal disease in all Wyoming and Colorado animals within 35 days. Survival time was longer in toadlets from Wyoming than Colorado and in toadlets spending more time in dry sites. In a second trial involving Colorado toadlets exposed to 35% fewer Bd zoospores, infection peaked and subsided over 68 days with no lethal chytridiomycosis in any treatment. However, compared with drier aquaria with dry refuges, Bd infection intensity was 41% higher in more humid aquaria and 81% higher without dry refuges available. Our findings suggest that although widely infected in nature, Wyoming toads may escape chytridiomycosis due to a slight advantage in innate resistance or because their native habitat hinders Bd growth or provides more opportunities to reduce pathogen loads behaviorally than in Colorado.     

Raptor predation on wintering waders in southeast Scotland

Predation on waders was investigated over the winters of 1982-83 and 1983-84 at a rocky shore and a small estuary in southeast Scotland. Probably all the waders which were found after being eaten were killed by raptors; mammalian predation and death due to severe weather were of minimal importance in comparison to the effects of raptor predation. Sparrowhawks were probably the major predators of waders at both sites, but owls also took some. Differences were found between the rocky shore and the estuary in the species of raptors which were seen (more Peregrines and Merlins seen on the estuary) and in the numbers of wader kills which had been plucked and eaten on open ground (more open ground pluckings, indicative of Peregrines and Merlins, found on the estuary). It is suggested that Peregrines and Merlins took more waders at the estuary due to their preference for hunting over large open expanses. Winter mortality rates due to predation varied in different species of waders: at the rocky shore the Redshank suffered the heaviest winter mortality (20% and 16%) whilst on the estuary the Ringed Plover had the highest winter mortality (19%). At both sites no large waders such as Curlews and Oystercatchers died as a result of predators and for these species other factors, such as severe weather or starvation, appeared to be a greater source of mortality. Significantly more juvenile Redshanks, Turnstones and, probably, Dunlin and Ringed Plovers were found eaten than was expected from the age-composition of their respective populations. In the Redshank and Turnstone several differences in the behaviour of juveniles and adults were discovered which may have made juveniles more vulnerable to predation.     

Avian and Bat Fatality Rates at Old-Generation and Repowered Wind Turbines in California

ABSTRACT Wind turbines in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area (APWRA), California, USA, have caused annual fatalities of thousands of raptors and other birds. Alameda County implemented an Avian Protection Program requiring mitigation measures and eventual repowering to modern wind turbines, all intended to reduce raptor fatality rates 50% from levels estimated for 1998–2003. Two years into the 3-year program, we compared estimates of fatality rates between 1998–2003 and 2005–2007 and between a repowered wind project (Diablo Winds) and the APWRA's old-generation wind turbines. The APWRA-wide fatality rates increased significantly for multiple bird species, including 85% for all raptors and 51% for all birds. Fatality rates caused by the Diablo Winds repowering project were not lower than replaced turbines, but they were 54% and 66% lower for raptors and all birds, respectively, than those of concurrently operating old-generation turbines in 2005–2007. Because new-generation turbines can generate nearly 3 times the energy per megawatt of rated capacity compared to the APWRA's old turbines, repowering the APWRA could reduce mean annual fatality rates by 54% for raptors and 65% for all birds, while more than doubling annual wind-energy generation. Alternatively, the nameplate capacity of a repowered APWRA could be restricted to 209 megawatts to meet current energy generation (about 700 gigawatt-hr), thereby reducing mean annual fatalities by 83% for raptors and 87% for all birds. In lieu of repowering, bird fatalities could be reduced by enforcing operating permits and environmental laws and by the County requiring implementation of the Alameda County Scientific Review Committee's recommendations.     

Breeding density, cuckoldry risk and copulation behaviour during the fertile period in raptors: a comparative analysis

Extrapair copulations (EPCs) and fertilizations (EPFs) occur in many socially monogamous bird species, including raptors. In this group of species, males invest heavily in reproduction through the feeding of female and young, so the cost of cuckoldry is particularly high. The feeding of females by males, characteristic of most species, conflicts with mate guarding, so raptors are expected to use frequent within-pair copulations (WPCs) for paternity assurance. In this study, I reviewed information on copulation behaviour of diurnal raptors, and used regression analyses and phylogenetic comparative analyses to investigate relations between density, EPC frequency and WPC behaviour. EPCs occurred in most raptor species studied (68%, N=19), mostly during the presumed fertile period of females. EPC frequency, measured as the percentage of females engaging in EPC but not the percentage of extrapair copulations, was positively related to breeding density. The rate and relative duration of WPCs were also positively related to breeding density, but only WPC rate was positively related to EPC frequency (percentage of females). Frequently copulating species had relatively larger testes, underlying higher sperm production capacities. The results support the hypotheses that sperm competition intensity increases with breeding density, and that male raptors rely on frequent copulations to ensure paternity. Despite the risk, EPFs rarely occurred in raptors, suggesting efficient paternity guards.     

Wing and hindlimb myology of vultures and raptors (Accipitriformes) in relation to locomotion and foraging

Herein, we compare functional muscle properties among convergent forms of large, obligate avian scavengers. We performed quantitative analyses of all the muscle masses and cross‐sectional areas (CSA) of the wings and hindlimbs of five species from two families, Cathartidae (New World vultures; Cathartes aura and Vultur gryphus) and Accipitridae (Old World vultures and raptors; Gyps africanus, Aquila rapax, and Buteo lineatus). These species comprise two paraphyletic functional groups, raptors (Aquila and Buteo) and vultures (Gyps, Cathartes, and Vultur). Our ordination analyses based on all of the muscles of the wings, hindlimbs, and wing and hindlimb muscles combined produced patterns that appeared to be more related to phylogeny, with a hint of a functional signal in wing muscle CSA. However, when wing muscles were grouped according to their functional roles (upstroke, downstroke, and wing stabilization), the percentages of mass and CSA allocated to the upstroke and stabilizing muscles were 1.4–5% greater in the vultures than in the raptors. Conversely, when hindlimb muscles were grouped according to their roles in grasping and terrestrial locomotion, the percentages of mass and CSA allocated to grasping muscles were 5.9–14% greater in the raptors. Our results provide a baseline for future lines of inquiry aimed at understanding how muscle mass and CSA are affected differentially across locomotor modules, possibly in response to differential demands on wing and hindlimb function experienced by these disparate accipitriform clades.     

Population ecology of tree succulents (Aloe and Pachypodium) in the arid western Cape: decline of keystone species

Arborescent succulents are conspicuous elements of the arid flora of the far north-western Cape Province. In the Richtersveld and two adjacent more southerly areas (Springbok and Nieuwoudtville), we surveyed the population structure of the following three species, Pachypodium namaquanum (Apocynaceae), Aloe dichotoma and A. pillansii (a rare endemic) (both Liliaceae). Only in the Richtersveld, did both Aloe species have a high proportion of dead individuals and all three species had few seedlings there. Populations in adjacent areas had lower levels of mortality and greater recruitment. Mortality appears to be due to damage by baboons and porcupines. This apparent decline is potentially serious because all three species appear to be keystone species. They supply perches to raptors, nesting sites for other birds, nectar for birds, and food, habitat and moisture to other animals.     

Minimising mortality in endangered raptors due to power lines: the importance of spatial aggregation to optimize the application of mitigation measures

Electrocution by power lines is one of the main causes of non-natural mortality in birds of prey. In an area in central Spain, we surveyed 6304 pylons from 333 power lines to determine electrocution rates, environmental and design factors that may influence electrocution and the efficacy of mitigation measures used to minimise electrocution cases. A total of 952 electrocuted raptors, representing 14 different species, were observed. Electrocuted raptors were concentrated in certain areas and the environmental factors associated with increased electrocution events were: greater numbers of prey animals; greater vegetation cover; and shorter distance to roads. The structural elements associated with electrocutions were shorter strings of insulators, one or more phases over the crossarm, cross-shaped design and pylon function. Of the 952 carcasses found, 148 were eagles, including golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti) and Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata). Electrocuted eagles were clustered in smaller areas than other electrocuted raptors. The factors associated with increased eagle electrocution events were: pylons function, shorter strings of insulators, higher slopes surrounding the pylon, and more numerous potential prey animals. Pylons with increased string of insulators had lower raptor electrocution rates than unimproved pylons, although this technique was unsuccessful for eagles. Pylons with cable insulation showed higher electrocution rates than unimproved pylons, both for raptors and eagles, despite this is the most widely used and recommended mitigation measure in several countries. To optimize the application of mitigation measures, our results recommend the substitution of pin-type insulators to suspended ones and elongating the strings of insulators.     

Shrub persistence and increased grass mortality in response to drought in dryland systems

Droughts in the southwest United States have led to major forest and grassland die‐off events in recent decades, suggesting plant community and ecosystem shifts are imminent as native perennial grass populations are replaced by shrub‐ and invasive plant‐dominated systems. These patterns are similar to those observed in arid and semiarid systems around the globe, but our ability to predict which species will experience increased drought‐induced mortality in response to climate change remains limited. We investigated meteorological drought‐induced mortality of nine dominant plant species in the Colorado Plateau Desert by experimentally imposing a year‐round 35% precipitation reduction for eight continuous years. We distributed experimental plots across numerous plant, soil, and parent material types, resulting in 40 distinct sites across a 4,500 km² region of the Colorado Plateau Desert. For all 8 years, we tracked c. 400 individual plants and evaluated mortality responses to treatments within and across species, and through time. We also examined the influence of abiotic and biotic site factors in driving mortality responses. Overall, high mortality trends were driven by dominant grass species, including Achnatherum hymenoides, Pleuraphis jamesii, and Sporobolus cryptandrus. Responses varied widely from year to year and dominant shrub species were generally resistant to meteorological drought, likely due to their ability to access deeper soil water. Importantly, mortality increased in the presence of invasive species regardless of treatment, and native plant die‐off occurred even under ambient conditions, suggesting that recent climate changes are already negatively impacting dominant species in these systems. Results from this long‐term drought experiment suggest major shifts in community composition and, as a result, ecosystem function. Patterns also show that, across multiple soil and plant community types, native perennial grass species may be replaced by shrubs and invasive annuals in the Colorado Plateau Desert.     

Fledgling sex ratios in relation to brood size in size-dimorphic altricial birds

In six species of dimorphic raptors (females larger than males)and one passerine (males larger than females), the sex ratioat fledging varied systematically with brood size at fledging.In all species the strongest bias toward the smaller sex wasestablished in the largest as well as the smallest broods; amore even distribution of males and females was observed inbroods of intermediate size. We explored a specific differentialmortality explanation for this sex ratio variation. Our hypothesispostulates that variation in mortality is caused by differencesin food demand between broods of the same size, due to theirsex composition. Data from the marsh harrier Circus aeruginosuson gender-related food demand and overall nestling mortalitywere used to predict the frequency of surviving males and femalesat fledging, assuming an even sex ratio at hatching and randommortality with respect to both sexes within broods. The modelquantitatively fits the marsh harrier data well, especiallyin broods originating from large dutches. Although we anticipatethat other mechanisms are also involved, the results supportthe hypothesis of sex-ratio-dependent mortality, differentialbetween broods, as the process generating the observed brood-sizedependence of fledgling sex ratios in sexually dimorphic birds.     

Excess mortality and morbidity during the July 2006 heat wave in Porto, Portugal

The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of the July 2006 heat wave through the use of the heat index, in mortality (all causes) and morbidity (all causes, respiratory and circulatory diseases) in general, and in people over 74 years and by gender, in Porto. In this paper, the Poisson generalized additive regression model was used to estimate the impact of apparent temperature (heat index) and daily mortality and morbidity during the July 2006 heat wave. Daily mortality, morbidity and heat index were correlated with lags of apparent temperature up to 7 days using Pearson correlation. For a 1°C increase in mean apparent temperature we observed a 2.7 % (95 % CI: 1.7–3.6 %) increase in mortality (all cause), a 1.7 % (95 % CI: 0.6–2.9 %) increase in respiratory morbidity, a 2.2 % (95 % CI: 0.4–4.1 %) increase in respiratory morbidity in women, a 5.4 % (95%CI: 1.1–6.6 %) increase in chronic obstructive pulmonary morbidity, and a 7.5 % (95 % CI: 1.3–14.1 %) increase in chronic obstructive pulmonary morbidity in women, for the entire population. For people?≥?75 years, our results showed a 3.3 % increase (95 % CI: 1.7–5.0 %) in respiratory morbidity, a 2.7 % (95 % CI: 0.4–5.1 %) increase in respiratory morbidity in men, a 3.9 % (95 %CI: 1.6–6.3 %) increase in respiratory morbidity in women, a 7.0 % (95 % CI: 1.1–13.2 %) in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and a 9.0 % (95 % CI: 0.3–18.5 %) in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in women. The use of heat index in a Mediterranean tempered climate enabled the identification of the effects of the July 2006 heat wave in mortality due to all causes and in respiratory morbidity of the general population, as well as in respiratory morbidity of individuals with more than 74 years of age.