The development of contact force construction in the dynamic-contact task of cycling [corrected

Purposeful movement requires that an individual produce appropriate joint torques to accelerate segments, and when environmental contact is involved, to develop task-appropriate contact forces. Developmental research has been confined largely to the mastery of unconstrained movement skills (pointing, kicking). The purpose of this study was to study the developmental progression that characterizes the interaction of muscular and non-muscular forces in tasks constrained by contact with the environment. Seven younger children (YC, 6-8 years), 7 older children (OC, 9-11 years) and 7 adults (AD) pedaled an ergometer (80 rpm) at an anthropometrically scaled cycling power. Resultant forces measured at the pedal's surface were decomposed into muscle, inertia and gravity components. Muscle pedal forces were further examined in terms of the underlying lower extremity joint torques and kinematic weights that constitute the muscular component of the pedal force. Data showed children applied muscle forces to the pedal in a significantly different manner compared to adults, and that this was due to the children's lower segmental mass and inertia. The children adjusted the contribution of the proximal joint muscle torques to compensate for reduced contributions to the resultant pedal force by gravitational and inertial components. These data show that smaller segmental mass and inertia limit younger children's ability to construct the dynamic-contact task of cycling in an adult-like form. On the basis of these results, however, the children's response was not "immature". Rather, the results show a task-appropriate adaptation to lower segmental mass and inertia.     

Robot-based methodology for a kinematic and kinetic analysis of unconstrained,but reproducible upper extremity movement

Although arm movements play an important role in everyday life, there is still a lack of procedures for the analysis of upper extremity movement. The main problems for standardizing the procedure are the variety of arm movements and the difficult assessment of external hand forces. The first problem requires the predefinition of motions, and the second one is the prerequisite for calculation of net joint forces and torques arising during motion. A new methodology for measuring external forces during prespecified, reproducible upper extremity movement has been introduced and validated. A robot-arm has been used to define the motion and 6 degrees of freedom (DoF) force sensor has been attached to it for acquiring the external loads acting on the arm. Additionally, force feedback has been used to help keeping external loads constant. Intra-individual reproducibility of joint angles was estimated by using correlation coefficients to compare a goal-directed movement with robot-guided task. Inter-individual reproducibility has been evaluated by using the mean standard deviation of joint angles for both types of movement. The results showed that both inter- and intra-individual reproducibility have significantly improved by using the robot. Also, the effectiveness of using force feedback for keeping a constant external load has been shown. This makes it possible to estimate net joint forces and torques which are important biomechanical information in motion analysis.     

Biomechanics of reactions to impending falls

Responses of 11 young adult males, initially standing, to support surface forward accelerations of 0.18 g were investigated. In response to the impending falls this stimulus initiated, body segment motions and myoelectric activities in six muscles were measured. These measurements were then input to 9 or 12 segment whole body biomechanical models and the reaction joint torques needed to produce the motions were calculated. Mean relative joint rotations were as large as 92.8 degrees and calculated relative joint angular accelerations as large as 29.7 rad s-2. Mean myoelectric signal latencies in the six muscles monitored ranged from 135 ms at the ankles to 176 ms at the shoulders with intermediate values at intermediate joints. Mean values of calculated maximum joint torques ranged to 70 Nm at the ankles, 82 Nm at the knees, 73 Nm at the hips, and 19 Nm at the shoulders.     

Inverse dynamic investigation of voluntary trunk movements in weightlessness: a new microgravity-specific strategy

Present investigation faces the question of quantitative assessment of exchanged forces and torques at the restraints during whole body posture exercises in long-term microgravity. Inverse dynamic modelling and total angular momentum at the ankle joint were used in order to reconstruct movement dynamics at the restraining point, represented by the ankle joint. The hypothesis is that the minimisation of the torques at the interface point assumes a key role in movement planning in 0 g. This hypothesis would respond to an optimisation of muscles activity, a minimisation of energy expenditure and therefore an accurate control of body movement. Results show that the 0 g movement strategy adopted ensures that the integral of the net ankle moment between the beginning and the end of the movement is zero. This expected mechanical constraint is not satisfied when 0 g movement dynamics is simulated using terrestrial kinematics. This accounts for a significant imposed change of movement strategy. Particularly, the efficient compensation of the inertial effects of the segments in terms of total angular momentum at the ankle joint was evidenced. These results explain the exaggerated axial synergies, observed on kinematics and which moved centre of mass (CM) backward from its already backward initial positioning, as a tool for enhancing the compensation and achieving the desired minimisation of the torques exchanges at the restraints.     

Dynamic interactions between limb segments during planar arm movement

Movement of multiple segment limbs requires generation of appropriate joint torques which include terms arising from dynamic interactions among the moving segments as well as from such external forces as gravity. The interaction torques, arising from inertial, centripetal, and Coriolis forces, are not present for single joint movements. The significance of the individual interaction forces during reaching movements in a horizontal plane involving only the shoulder and elbow joints has been assessed for different movement paths and movement speeds. Trajectory formation strategies which simplify the dynamics computation are presented.     

Muscular mechanical energy expenditure as a process for detecting potential risks in manual materials handling

The problem of injuries in manual materials handling remains a big concern in industrialized countries. It has become imperative in occupational biomechanics to extend the analyses to all pertinent factors involved in working tasks and to adopt an experimental approach leading to the understanding of the relative demands imposed simultaneously on all body joints. The evaluation of joint muscular work and the processes of energy generation, absorption and transfer appears promising as a tool in the detection of risk factors in working tasks. The present study consisted of evaluating two tasks (lifting and lowering) performed at five different heights (from 15 to 185 cm) with five different loads (from 3.3 to 22.0 kg). The subjects were eight experienced workers from a food product warehouse. Cinematography techniques and two AMTI force platforms were used to collect the data. Dynamic and planar segmental analyses were performed to calculate the net muscular moments at the joints, and work was calculated from the integration of muscular power. Factorial analyses of variance with repeated measures were performed on the dependent variables to evaluate the main effects of tasks, loads, and heights (for lifting and for lowering) and the interactions. The results revealed the adoption of different movement strategies in the handling of heavier loads. In the first, a larger emphasis of energy transfer and movement economy; in the second, a reduction in the relative contribution of the shoulders to the detriment of an increased participation of the lower back and hips was found. The comparison between lifting and lowering tasks indicated that lifting was only slightly more demanding than lowering for maximum muscular moments (about 15%) but much more so for mechanical work (about 40%); however, the nature of the efforts in eccentric contractions suggests that the lowering of heavy loads may be risky. Finally, the results revealed the deviation of height of handling from the waist level to be a significant factor. Handling at lower heights was considerably more demanding but the work was shared by several joints, mainly by the hips and lower back (about 70%); on the other hand, in handling above the waist, the work efforts were concentrated on the upper limbs (about 80%). In most cases, the participation of lower limbs was minimal and some movement strategies are suggested for future research.     

The role of intersegmental dynamics during rapid limb oscillations

The interactive dynamic effects of muscular, inertial and gravitational moments on rapid, multi-segmented limb oscillations were studied. Using three-segment, rigid-body equations of motion, hip, knee and ankle intersegmental dynamics were calculated for the steady-state cycles of the paw-shake response in adult spinal cats. Hindlimb trajectories were filmed to obtain segmental kinematics, and myopotentials of flexors and extensors at each of the three joints were recorded synchronously with the ciné film. The segmental oscillations that emerged during the paw-shake response were a consequence of an interplay between active and passive musculotendinous forces, inertial forces, and gravity. During steady-state oscillations, the amplitudes of joint excursions, peak angular velocities, and peak angular accelerations increased monotonically and significantly in magnitude from the proximal joint (hip) to the most distal joint (ankle). In contrast to these kinematic relationships, the maximal values of net moments at the hip and knee were equal in magnitude, but of significantly lower magnitude than the large net moment at the ankle joint. At both the ankle and the knee, the flexor and extensor muscle moments were equal, but at the hip the magnitude of the peak flexor muscle moment was significantly greater than the extensor muscle moment. Muscle moments at the hip not only acted to counterbalance accelerations of the more distal segments, but also acted to maintain the postural orientation of the hindlimb. Large muscle moments at the knee functioned to counterbalance the large inertial moments generated by the large angular accelerations of the paw. At the ankle, the muscle moments dominated the generation of the paw accelerations. At the ankle and the knee, muscle moments controlled limb dynamics by slowing and reversing joint motions, and the active muscle forces contributing to ankle and knee moments were derived from lengthening of active musculotendinous units. In contrast to the more distal joints, the active muscles crossing the hip predominantly shortened as a result of the interplay among inertial forces and gravitational moments. The muscle function and kinetic data explain key features of the complex interactions that occur between central control mechanisms and multi-segmented, oscillating limb segments during the paw-shake response.     

Body segment inertial parameters and low back load in individuals with central adiposity

There is a paucity of information regarding the impact of central adiposity on the inertial characteristics of body segments. Deriving low back loads during lifting requires accurate estimate of inertial parameters. The purpose was to determine the body segment inertial parameters of people with central adiposity using a photogrammetric technique, and then to evaluate the impact on lumbar spine loading. Five participants with central adiposity (waist:hip ratio>0.9, waist circumference>102 cm) were compared to a normal BMI group. A 3D wireframe model of the surface topography was constructed, partitioned into 8 body segments and then body segment inertial parameters were calculated using volumetric integration assuming uniform segment densities for the segments. Central adiposity dependent increases in body segment parameters ranged from 12 to 400%, varying across segments (greatest for trunk) and parameters. The increase in mass distribution to the trunk was accompanied by an anterior and inferior shift of the centre of mass. A proximal shift in centre of mass was detected for the extremities, along with a reduction in mass distribution to the lower extremity. L5/S1 torques (392 vs 263 Nm) and compressive forces (5918 vs 3986 N) were substantially elevated in comparison to the normal BMI group, as well as in comparison to torques and forces predicted using published BSIP equations. Central adiposity resulted in substantial but non-uniform increases in inertial parameters resulting in task specific increases in torque and compressive loads arising from different inertial and physical components.     

Joint forces and torques when walking in shallow water

This study reports for the first time an estimation of the internal net joint forces and torques on adults' lower limbs and pelvis when walking in shallow water, taking into account the drag forces generated by the movement of their bodies in the water and the equivalent data when they walk on land. A force plate and a video camera were used to perform a two-dimensional gait analysis at the sagittal plane of 10 healthy young adults walking at comfortable speeds on land and in water at a chest-high level. We estimated the drag force on each body segment and the joint forces and torques at the ankle, knee, and hip of the right side of their bodies using inverse dynamics. The observed subjects' apparent weight in water was about 35% of their weight on land and they were about 2.7 times slower when walking in water. When the subjects walked in water compared with walking on land, there were no differences in the angular displacements but there was a significant reduction in the joint torques which was related to the water's depth. The greatest reduction was observed for the ankle and then the knee and no reduction was observed for the hip. All joint powers were significantly reduced in water. The compressive and shear joint forces were on average about three times lower during walking in water than on land. These quantitative results substantiate the use of water as a safe environment for practicing low-impact exercises, particularly walking.     

Segment interactions within the swing leg during unloaded and loaded running

In this study, designed to determine the effect of lower extremity inertia manipulation on joint kinetics and segment energetics during the swing phase, 15 male distance runners were filmed as they performed treadmill running (3.35 m s-1) under five load conditions: no added load and loads of 0.25 kg and 0.50 kg added to each thigh or each foot. Results of this study demonstrated that the energetics of the lower extremity movements during the swing phase of the running cycle were dominated by mechanical energy transfers between adjacent segments attributed to the joint reaction forces, which acted to redistribute mechanical energy within the system. These contributions were considerably greater than those of the net joint moments, which primarily reflected muscular generation and dissipation of mechanical energy. Lower extremity loading caused little change in the movement pattern of the swing leg. However, increases in the joint reaction forces and net moments and in the amount of work done and the energy transfer attributed to the reaction forces and moments were observed, but were limited to the joints proximal to the location of the added load. These results were consistent with the increased aerobic demand associated with increases in lower extremity inertia that have been reported elsewhere and also have implications for the manner in which the neuromuscular system controls the motion of the legs during running.     

Crank inertial load has little effect on steady-state pedaling coordination

Inertial load can affect the control of a dynamic system whenever parts of the system are accelerated ordeclerated. During steady-state pedating, because within-cycle variations in crank angular acceleration still exist, the amount of crank inertia present (which varies widely with road-riding gear ratio) may affect the within-cycle coordination of muscles. However, the effect of inertial load on steady-state pedaling coordination is almos always assumed to be negligible, since the net mechanical energy per cycle developed by muscles only depends on the constant cadence and workload. This study tests the hypothesis that under steady-state conditions, the net joint torques produced by muscles at the hip, knee, and ankle are unaffected by crank inertial load. To perform the investigation, we constructed a pedaling apparatus which could emulate the low inertial load of a standard ergometer or the high inertial load of a road bicycle in high gear. Crank angle and bilateral pedal force and angle data were collected from ten subjects instructed to pedal steadily (i.e. constant speed across cycles) and smoothly (i.e. constant speed within a cycle) against both inertias at a constant workload. Virtually no statistically significant changes were found in the net hip and knee muscle joint torques calculated from an inverse dynamics analysis. Though the net ankle muscle joint torque, as well as the one- and two-legged crank torque, showed statistically significant increases at the higher inertia, the changes were small. In contrast, large statistically significant reductions were found in crank kinematic variability both within a cycle and between cycles (i.e. cadence), primarily because a larger inertial load means a slower crank dynamic response. Nonetheless, the reduction in cadence variability was somewhat attenuated by a large statistically significant increase in one-legged crank torque variability. We suggest, therefore, that muscle coordination during steady-state pedaling is largely unaffected, though less well regulated, when crank inertial load is increased.     

The linear co-variance between joint muscle torques is not a generalized principle

In 1996, Gottlieb et al. [Gottlieb GL, Song Q, Hong D, Almeida GL, Corcos DM. Coordinating movement at two joints: A principle of linear covariance. J Neurophysiol 1996;75(4):1760–4] identified a linear co-variance between the joint muscle torques generated at two connected joints. The joint muscle torques changed directions and magnitudes in a synchronized and linear fashion and called it the principle of linear co-variance. Here we showed that this principle cannot hold for some class of movements. Neurologically normal subjects performed multijoint movements involving elbow and shoulder with reversal towards three targets in the sagittal plane without any constraints. The movement kinematics was calculated using the X and Y coordinates of the markers positioned over the joints. Inverse dynamics was used to calculate the joint muscle, interaction and net torques. We found that for the class of voluntary movements analyzed, the joint muscle torques of the elbow and the shoulder were not linearly correlated. The same was observed for the interaction torques. But, the net torques at both joints, i.e., the sum of the interaction and the joint muscle torques were linearly correlated. We showed that by decoupling the joint muscle torques, but keeping the net torques linearly correlated, the CNS was able to generate fast and accurate movements with straight fingertip paths. The movement paths were typical of the ones in which the joint muscle torques were linearly correlated.     

Spatial consistency of circle on the pedagogic pommel horse: influence of expertise

Gymnastics is a closed-skill sport, and the repeatability of a specific technique is accepted as a valuable indicator of a performer's level of expertise. The circle movement, defined as a gyrating movement in the horizontal plane, is a key component of all contemporary pommel horse exercises. The aims of this study were to determine the spatial consistency of the circle movement and to assess the influence of expertise on the repeatability of this skill performed on the pedagogic pommel horse. Six expert gymnasts and six nonexperts performed 10 circles on this apparatus. A 3-dimensional analysis system recorded the trajectories of 6 markers fixed on the right and left ankles, hips, and shoulders. The spatiotemporal consistency was assessed by the SD of the marker trajectories during the circle sequence. The results showed that the shoulder and trajectories were more consistent than the ankle trajectory (P < 0.05); the marker trajectories were less consistent in the sagittal plane (P < 0.05); and the expert gymnasts showed better repeatability of the ankle trajectory than the nonexpert gymnasts did (P < 0.05). In this context, the use of the SD of the ankle trajectory during the circle sequence could be an interesting tool for trainers to quantify objectively the positional errors of the legs during circular swings and to measure the improvement in movements after specific training.     

Comparison of global and joint-to-joint methods for estimating the hip joint load and the muscle forces during walking

A three-dimensional musculoskeletal model of the lower limb was developed to study the influence of biarticular muscles on the muscle force distribution and joint loads during walking. A complete walking cycle was recorded for 9 healthy subjects using the standard optoelectronic motion tracking system. Ground contact forces were also measured using a 6-axes force plate. Inverse dynamics was used to compute net joint reactions (forces and torques) in the lower limb. A static optimization method was then used to estimate muscle forces. Two different approaches were used: in the first one named global method, the biarticular muscles exerted a torque on the two joints they spanned at the same time, and in the second one called joint-by-joint method, these biarticular muscles were divided into two mono-articular muscles with geometrical (insertion, origin, via points) and physiological properties remained unchanged. The hip joint load during the gait cycle was then calculated taking into account the effect of muscle contractions. The two approaches resulted in different muscle force repartition: the biarticular muscles were favoured over any set of single-joint muscles with the same physiological function when using the global method. While the two approaches yielded only little difference in the resultant hip load, the examination of muscle power showed that biarticular muscles could produce positive work at one joint and negative work at the other, transferring energy between body segments and thus decreasing the metabolic cost of movement.     

Analysis of a muscular control system in human movements

In this work, we have studied a muscular control system under experimental conditions for analyzing the dynamic behavior of individual muscles and theoretical considerations for elucidating its control strategy. Movement of human limbs is achieved by joint torques and each torque is specified as the sum of torques generated by muscle forces. The behavior of individual muscles is controlled by the neural input which is estimated by means of an electromyogram (EMG). In this study, the EMGs for a flexor and an extensor are measured in elbow joint movements and the dynamic behavior of individual muscles is analyzed. As a result, it is verified that both a flexor and an extensor are activated throughout the entire movement and that the activation of muscles is controlled above a specific limit independent of the hand-held load. Subsequently, a system model for simulating elbow joint movements is developed which includes the muscle dynamic relationship between the neural input and the isometric force. The minimum limit of muscle activation that has been confirmed in experiments is provided as a constraint of the neural input and the criterion is defined by a derivative of the isometric force of individual muscles. The optimal trajectories formulated under these conditions are quantitatively compared with the experimentally observed trajectories, and the control strategy of a muscular control system is studied. Finally, a muscular control system in multi-joint arm movements is discussed with regard to the comparative analysis between observed and optimal trajectories. Received: 7 April 1999 / Accepted in revised form: 27 July 1999     

Three-dimensional model to predict muscle forces and their relation to motor variances in reaching arm movements

A three-dimensional (3-D) arm movement model is presented to simulate kinematic properties and muscle forces in reaching arm movements. Healthy subjects performed reaching movements repetitively either with or without a load in the hand. Joint coordinates were measured. Muscle moment arms, 3-D angular acceleration, and moment of inertias of arm segments were calculated to determine 3-D joint torques. Variances of hand position, arm configuration, and muscle activities were calculated. Ratios of movement variances observed in the two conditions (load versus without load) showed no differences for hand position and arm configuration variances. Virtual muscle force variances for all muscles except deltoid posterior and EMG variances for four muscles increased significantly by moving with the load. The greatly increased variances in muscle activity did not imply equally high increments in kinematic variances. We conclude that enhanced muscle cooperation through synergies helps to stabilize movement at the kinematic level when a load is added.     

Lower extremity extension force and electromyography properties as a function of knee angle and their relation to joint torques: implications for strength diagnostics

The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether and how isometric multijoint leg extension strength can be used to assess athletes' muscular capability within the scope of strength diagnosis. External reaction forces (Fext) and kinematics were measured (n = 18) during maximal isometric contractions in a seated leg press at 8 distinct joint angle configurations ranging from 30 to 100° knee flexion. In addition, muscle activation of rectus femoris, vastus medialis, biceps femoris c.l., gastrocnemius medialis, and tibialis anterior was obtained using surface electromyography (EMG). Joint torques for hip, knee, and ankle joints were computed by inverse dynamics. The results showed that unilateral Fext decreased significantly from 3,369 ± 575 N at 30° knee flexion to 1,015 ± 152 N at 100° knee flexion. Despite maximum voluntary effort, excitation of all muscles as measured by EMG root mean square changed with knee flexion angles. Moreover, correlations showed that above-average Fext at low knee flexion is not necessarily associated with above-average Fext at great knee flexion and vice versa. Similarly, it is not possible to deduce high joint torques from high Fext just as above-average joint torques in 1 joint do not signify above-average torques in another joint. From these findings, it is concluded that an evaluation of muscular capability by means of Fext as measured for multijoint leg extension is strongly limited. As practical recommendation, we suggest analyzing multijoint leg extension strength at 3 distinct knee flexion angles or at discipline-specific joint angles. In addition, a careful evaluation of muscular capacity based on measured Fext can be done for knee flexion angles ≥ 80°. For further and detailed analysis of single muscle groups, the use of inverse dynamic modeling is recommended.     

The effect of cost function on optimum technique of the undersomersault on parallel bars

The undersomersault, or felge, to handstand on parallel bars has become an important skill in Men's Artistic Gymnastics as it forms the basis of many complex variations. To receive no deductions from the judges, the undersomersault must be performed without demonstrating the use of strength to achieve the final handstand position. Two male gymnasts each performed nine undersomersaults from handstand to handstand while data were recorded using an automatic motion capture system. The highest and lowest scoring trials of each gymnast, as determined by four international judges, were chosen for further analysis. Three optimization criteria were used to generate undersomersault technique during the swing phase of the skill using a computer simulation model: minimization of peak joint torques, minimization of horizontal velocity before release, and maximization of angular momentum. The techniques used by both gymnasts could be explained using the second optimization criterion which facilitated further skill development. The first optimization criterion generated a technique advocated for beginners where strength might be expected to be a limiting factor. The third optimization criterion resulted in a different type of undersomersault movement of greater difficulty according to the FIG Code of Points.     

Improving joint torque calculations: optimization-based inverse dynamics to reduce the effect of motion errors

The accuracy of joint torques calculated from inverse dynamics methods is strongly dependent upon errors in body segment motion profiles, which arise from two sources of noise: the motion capture system and movement artifacts of skin-mounted markers. The current study presents a method to increase the accuracy of estimated joint torques through the optimization of the angular position data used to describe these segment motions. To compute these angular data, we formulated a constrained nonlinear optimization problem with a cost function that minimizes the difference between the known ground reaction forces (GRFs) and the GRF calculated via a top-down inverse dynamics solution. To evaluate this approach, we constructed idealized error-free reference movements (of squatting and lifting) that produced a set of known “true” motions and associated true joint torques and GRF. To simulate real-world inaccuracies in motion data, these true motions were perturbed by artificial noise. We then applied our approach to these noise-induced data to determine optimized motions and related joint torques. To evaluate the efficacy of the optimization approach compared to traditional (bottom-up or top-down) inverse dynamics approaches, we computed the root mean square error (RMSE) values of joint torques derived from each approach relative to the expected true joint torques. Compared to traditional approaches, the optimization approach reduced the RMSE by 54% to 79%. Average reduction due to our method was 65%; previous methods only achieved an overall reduction of 30%. These results suggest that significant improvement in the accuracy of joint torque calculations can be achieved using this approach.     

Which data should be tracked in forward-dynamic optimisation to best predict muscle forces in a pathological co-contraction case?

The choice of the cost-function for predicting muscle forces during a movement remains a challenge, especially in patients with neuromuscular disorders. Forward dynamics-based optimisations mainly track joint kinematics or torques, combined with a least-excitation criterion. Tracking marker trajectories and/or electromyography (EMG) has rarely been proposed. Our objective was to determine the best tracking objective-function to accurately predict the upper-limb muscle forces. A musculoskeletal model was created and EMG was simulated to obtain a reference movement – a shoulder abduction. A Gaussian noise (mean = 0; standard deviation = 15%) was added to the simulated EMG. Another noise – corresponding to the actual soft tissue artefacts (STA) of experimental shoulder abduction movements – was added to the trajectories of the markers placed on the model. Muscle forces were estimated from these noisy data, using forward dynamics assisted by six non-linear least-squared objective-functions. These functions involved the tracking of marker trajectories, joint angles or torques, with and without EMG-tracking. All six approaches used the same musculoskeletal model and were solved using a direct multiple shooting algorithm. Finally, the predicted joint angles, muscle forces and activations were compared to the reference values, using root-mean-square errors (RMSe) and biases. The force RMSe of the approach tracking both marker trajectories and EMG (18.45 ± 12.60 N) was almost five times lower than the one of the approach tracking only joint angles (82.37 ± 66.26 N) or torques (85.10 ± 116.40 N). Therefore, using EMG as a complementary tracking-data in forward dynamics seems to be promising for the estimation of muscle forces.