Managing calcareous grassland for the declining Duke of Burgundy <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hamearis lucina</Emphasis> butterfly: effects of grazing management on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Primula</Emphasis> host plants

Many butterfly species are declining in range and abundance, sometimes to the point of becoming vulnerable to extinction. Several traits increase a species’ vulnerability to population decline through stochastic processes, including high larval specificity and poor dispersal rate. The Duke of Burgundy Hamearis lucina relies on Primula as its sole larval host plant. This monophagus dependency, coupled with susceptibility to environmental stochasticity, low dispersal and poor recolonization potential, means it is vital that sites supporting this rapidly-declining species are managed optimally. Here, we use two calcareous grassland sites in the UK with different grazing systems to identify optimal grazing management for Primula abundance and, for the first time, Primula characteristics linked previously to Duke oviposting preference and success: size, condition, succulence and surrounding sward height. We find that autumn and winter grazing intensity are both positively associated with Primula abundance, but there is a trade-off for winter grazing with negative effects on plant size, condition and succulence. Winter grazing also decreased the sward height below the optimum. Plants were bigger and better at the site managed using continuous (free-roaming) grazing versus the site managed using rotational (paddock-based) grazing. We recommend moderately high grazing intensity during autumn using a free-roaming system where possible to attain abundant Primula, with a reduction in grazing intensity or grazing removal during winter to ensure suitability of individual plants. This management would also benefit other host plants, such as bird’s foot trefoil Lotus corniculatus, which are vital for other declining butterflies that frequently co-occur with Dukes.     

Facilitative interactions among co-flowering <Emphasis Type="Italic">Primula</Emphasis> species mediated by pollinator sharing

We investigated flowering phenology, pollinator visitation and visitor community composition in communities of self-incompatible sympatric Primula species in a high-elevation Himalayan ecosystem. Within the tight constraints imposed by short growing seasons in such ecosystems, interactions among co-occurring plants for pollinators may vary from competition to facilitation, depending on the specifics of the system. We found that pollinator community composition changed with elevation in this system: lepidopterans were the dominant visitors at lower elevations (2200–3000 masl), bees (other than bumblebees) dominated at mid-elevations (3000–3800 masl) and bumblebees dominated at higher elevations (3800–4600 masl). However, within an elevation zone, there were no significant differences in pollinators amongst co-occurring Primula species. At a focal study site where multiple Primula species co-occurred, our results showed that even while the overall flowering periods of these species broadly overlapped, the peak flowering periods of different Primula species were temporally segregated. Upon further inferring the nature of interaction amongst co-flowering Primula species, we found that plots with higher Primula diversity (≥?2 species) and density (80–100 individuals) experienced significantly higher pollinator visitation, compared with plots with single species and low flower densities (40–50 individuals). Our results suggest that in this community of sympatric, self-incompatible Primula species, a broadly aggregated, synchronous floral display of multiple species results in pollinator facilitation by attracting a greater number of pollinator visitors. Within this broadly synchronous display, the temporal segregation of peak flowering period of individual species may reduce competition for pollinators and limit heterospecific pollen transfer.     

The effects of introduced vespid wasps (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vespula germanica</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">V. vulgaris</Emphasis>) on threatened native butterfly (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Oreixenica ptunarra</Emphasis>) populations in Tasmania

Introduced vespid wasps (Vespula germanica and V. vulgaris) are highly efficient predators of native invertebrates. They have the potential to reduce populations of threatened species and change ecosystem dynamics, yet their impact is largely unknown in Australia. The introduction of vespid wasps has coincided with a decline in numbers of threatened Ptunarra brown butterflies (Oreixenica ptunarra) in Tasmania, Australia. The Ptunarra brown butterfly is endemic to Tasmania, where its habitat has been fragmented by clearance for agriculture and forestry. Local extinctions of the species were previously thought to be principally due to its inability to fly the long distances between habitat patches in this disjointed landscape. We investigate the importance of the new threat of vespid wasp predation in the decline of O. ptunarra in the highland grasslands of northwest Tasmania. Numbers of O. ptunarra analysed over a period of 15 years dramatically declined after the arrival of vespid wasps. Wasp control was trialled to determine whether it affected butterfly numbers. Current control methods decreased wasp numbers considerably, resulting in a small increase in butterfly numbers, indicating that wasp predation is keeping O. ptunarra at low densities. Without ongoing conservation measures, it is likely that butterfly numbers will stay low, potentially leading to genetic bottlenecks and more local extinctions. An increase in the intensity of wasp control, in combination with other conservation management methods, is required for the protection and recovery of O. ptunarra.     

Distribution and habitats of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phengaris</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Maculinea</Emphasis>) butterflies and population ecology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phengaris</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">teleius</Emphasis> in China

Many species of the butterfly genus Phengaris are regarded as endangered in many parts of their distribution. Several species are also widely distributed across northern China. Due to land use change and overgrazing, their habitats are declining and many patches have been lost. This paper investigates the distribution and habitats of the Chinese Phengaris species (of the subgenus Maculinea). Shrub-grassland near forests seem the most frequent habitat for Phengaris, while flat open grasslands are mostly over-grazed and thus survival for Phengaris butterflies there seems difficult. Throughout Europe, P. teleius is an endangered species, while there is still no information on its status in China. To improve the knowledge on the population ecology of P. teleius, its population structure, adult behaviour and movement were studied through mark–release–recapture methods in the Qinling Mountains of Taibai County. Eight grassland patches which were potentially suitable were found in the area in 2013. In total, 480 individuals (274 females) were marked, resulting in an overall recapture rate of 16 %. The average daily population size was 44 butterflies (±23 SD) during the adult flight period. Sixty-seven percent of the females and 38 % of the males moved less than 50 m, and 17 % of recaptured females and 38 % of males moved more than 200 m. The mean movement distance was 107 ± 177 m for males and 182 ± 122 m for females. The majority of the recaptures (86 %) were made within the patches, only a few individuals (14 %) moved between patches. Due to human disturbance and destruction, all of the eight potentially suitable patches are becoming smaller and increasingly isolated, thus these populations of P. teleius may face an increasing risk of extinction, which may well be a tip of the iceberg of habitat loss and fragmentation of P. teleius in Taibai County and possibly beyond. Hence we hope our initial study of P. teleius could have positive impacts on the conservation of Phengaris butterflies in China.     

Potential for interspecific hybridization between <Emphasis Type="Italic">Zizina emelina</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Zizina otis</Emphasis> (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

Environmental changes such as global warming and biological invasion caused by human activities raise the possibility of secondary contact between the endangered butterfly species Zizina emelina and its sibling species Zizina otis in Japan. To assess the possible risks from their habitats overlapping, we investigated the potential for hybridization and the development of F1 individuals. We observed successful mating of the two sibling species under artificial conditions. The presence of a postzygotic hybridization barrier was supported by the delay of larval development only in females; a delay did not occur in males. Existence of the barrier was also supported by a decreased egg hatching rate in one brood; this was likely associated with infection with Wolbachia, a bacterium manipulating the reproductive capability of its host. The size and wing markings of F1 hybrid individuals were intermediate between those of the two species. These results suggest that, if Z. emelina and Z. otis are distributed sympatrically in the future, there is a possibility of introgression and reproductive interference between the two species, which would increase the risk of decline of each species.     

Pleistocene shaping of genetic diversity in a monsoon-affected environment: the case of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gymnosporia</Emphasis> (Celastraceae) in the southern Arabian Peninsula

The Gymnosporia dhofarensis complex (Celastraceae) consists of the closely related taxa G. dhofarensis (Sebsebe) Jordaan and G. parviflora (Vahl) Chiov. and occurs in the fragmented and isolated monsoon-affected refugia of the coastal mountains in a vegetation of relics of (semi-)evergreen Afro-montane woodland and drier habitats (deciduous woodland, open dry scrub) of the southern Arabian Peninsula. To study the phylogeography of the complex, 536 individuals from 31 populations were analysed using cpDNA-RFLP, while a subset of 320 individuals from 20 populations was analysed using AFLP fingerprinting. Additionally, for 46 accessions from populations throughout the distribution range of the complex and 10 individuals of G. senegalensis (Lam.) Exell. s.l. sequences of nrDNA ITS were established to infer ribotype variation and allow dating of diversification events. Phylogeographical reconstructions based on six detected chloroplast haplotypes show a distinct haplotype distribution pattern with a main split between western (Northern Yemen/Jabal Eraf/Jabal Al Aghbar/Jabal Urays; G. parviflora) and eastern populations (Ras Fartak/Hawf Mts/Dhofar Mts; G. dhofarensis). The results of AFLP fingerprinting are congruent with chloroplast data but offer an even more detailed view into the intra-regional population differentiation. The analysis of nrDNA ITS variants shows that G. dhofarensis s.l. is well separated from other Gymnosporia representatives in the study (i.e. G. senegalensis s.l. and G. aff. divaricata). Based on nrDNA ITS sequence variation, the main inter-regional split between western (G. parviflora) and eastern populations (G. dhofarensis) is dated to 0.9–2.2 Ma before present.     

Host ant use of the Alcon blue butterfly at the northern range margin

In myrmecophilous insects, interactions with ants are often a key factor determining persistence of their populations. Regional variation in host ant use is therefore an essential aspect to consider to provide adequate conservation practices for such species. In this study, we examined this important facet of species’ ecology in an endangered myrmecophilous butterfly Phengaris (=Maculinea) alcon (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae). The investigations conducted in peripheral populations in Estonia allowed us to expand the knowledge of its host ant use to the northern distribution limit of the species. Our data indicate that in its northernmost populations, the xerophilous ecotype of Phengaris alcon is primarily parasitizing a single host ant species, Myrmica schencki. The data collected are in line with the emerging evidence suggesting that peripheral and core populations of P. alcon use different host ants, and peripheral populations tend to display higher host ant specificity. We also show that, at its northern range margin, P. alcon might be more limited by the availability of its sole larval food plant in the region, Gentiana cruciata, than the densities of its host ant. Finally, we found a strong negative correlation between Myrmica spp. and Lasius spp. colony densities, suggesting that interspecific competition between ants could have a substantial influence on host ant availability of Phengaris butterflies, and thus should be taken into account in conservation plans of these species.     

The ecology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Altrichthys azurelineatus</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">A. curatus,</Emphasis> two damselfishes that lack a pelagic larval phase

Out of more than 380 species of damselfish, only three lack a pelagic larval phase, Acanthochromis polyacanthus, that ranges from the Philippines to the Great Barrier Reef, and two species in the genus Altrichthys, A. azurelineatus and A. curatus, that are restricted to the Calamian Archipelago (Palawan province) in the Philippines. Therefore in a very restricted geographic area, northern Palawan, Philippines, all three species co-occur. The goal of this study was to fill a knowledge gap about the ecology of Altrichthys, where very little is currently known. Using census and behavioral approaches at 14 sites on six islands, we were able to identify adult densities, nest densities, nesting habitat preference, and brood behavior and abundance. We found that densities were very high (more than 17 individuals/100 m² for one species) and A. azurelineatus may be displacing A. curatus at deeper depths where habitat seems of higher quality. Only one out of 14 surveyed sites contained only one species, Altrichthys curatus. Different habitat use and feeding behavior suggest that niche partitioning may play an important role in the life history of these sympatric species.     

Fen meadows on the move for the conservation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Maculinea (Phengaris) teleius</Emphasis> butterflies

In the Netherlands, a single population of the obligate myrmecophilic butterfly Maculinea (Phengaris) teleius has survived on only 3 ha of habitat for more than 25 years, whereas at least 40 ha of habitat are thought to be required for a sustainable metapopulation. Therefore, 170 ha of farmland is being restored to wet meadows within a LIFE?+?project by large-scale soil excavation and hay inoculation. For successful restoration, the habitat requirements of the butterfly, with Sanguisorba officinalis as host plant and its particular life cycle as parasite of the ant species Myrmica scabrinodis, have to be taken into account. We tested whether colonization of nests of this ant species in the restoration areas is facilitated by translocation of sods collected from fen meadows. We divided 54 sods, each sized 1 m², randomly over six patches and measured vegetation development and ant presence in the sods and surrounding control plots for 2 years. In the first summer, significantly more Myrmica ants were found in the transplanted sods in comparison to the surrounding area. Herb cover had a significant positive effect on Myrmica ant presence while it did not affect the presence of the pioneer ant species Lasius niger. In the second year, Myrmica ants were found in the surrounding control plots as well. This study contributes to the knowledge-base required for the design of restoration projects aimed at expanding the habitat of the critically endangered butterfly Maculinea (Phengaris) teleius.     

The population biology and ecology of the Homerus swallowtail, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Papilio (Pterourus) homerus</Emphasis>, in the Cockpit Country,Jamaica

The Homerus swallowtail, Papilio (Pterourus) homerus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae), is an endangered species of butterfly endemic to Jamaica. As the largest species of the genus Papilio in the world and the largest butterfly in the Western Hemisphere, this rare butterfly once inhabited most of Jamaica but has now dwindled into two tiny populations: an eastern population, found where the Blue Mountains and John Crow Mountains merge, and a western population in the Cockpit Country. The present research focused on the previously unstudied Cockpit Country population of P. homerus; most previous information about this species is derived from studies of the eastern population. The purpose was to estimate the size of the remaining population in the Cockpit Country using MRR protocols, while making observations to better understand its ecology. Sampling consisted of carefully netting the butterfly, marking a permanent ink number on the wing (metallic Sharpie® marker), and recording winglength, wing condition, time, and sex. The population was found to be very small, estimated at fewer than 50 flying individuals. Many observations were made about the ecology of the species. These new data suggest a conservation plan is strongly needed, coupled with a breeding program to increase numbers of this extraordinary butterfly.     

Habitat conditions,stage structure and vegetation associations of geographically isolated subalpine populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salix lapponum</Emphasis> L. (Salicaceae) in the Krkonoše Mts (Czech Republic)

Shrub communities are important components of the subalpine vegetation. We focused on habitat conditions and stage structure (flowering and non-reproducing individuals) of stands of the endangered Salix lapponum in the Krkono?e Mts, Czech Republic. Habitat conditions were determined using soil sample analyses and Ellenberg indicator values (EIVs) derived from fine-scale (1?×?1 m) vegetation plots. The fine-scale plots were compared with coarse-scale relevés with the occurrence of S. lapponum acquired from the Czech National Phytosociological Database. We found that S. lapponum grows on nutrient-poor, acidic soils with high relative water contents, high amounts of total nitrogen, low amounts of phosphorus, moderate amounts of magnesium and low to moderate amounts of calcium. The overall proportion of non-reproducing individuals was 35.2%, but strong variations were observed among populations (0–100%). Co-occurring species and EIVs data indicated that flowering individuals are relatively more common in humid, nutrient-rich and warmer microhabitats than non-reproducing ones. Well-developed (“typical”) stands of S. lapponum with a dominance of flowering individuals occur along alpine springs, streams and in glacial cirques (= association Salicetum lapponum Zlatník 1928), but S. lapponum also grows along transitional mires and peat bogs and in subalpine grasslands. Coarse-scale relevés were similar to “typical” stands of S. lapponum at the fine scale but were differentiated from them by high frequencies of several, mainly broad-leaved forbs and herbs typical of moist to wet and fertile soils. Threats to S. lapponum and the future prospects of its stands in the Krkono?e Mts are briefly discussed.     

Xylem anatomy and calculated hydraulic conductance of four <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nothofagus</Emphasis> species with contrasting distribution in South-Central Chile

Nothofagus obliqua, N. dombeyi, N. alpina and N. antarctica are characteristic tree species of the temperate forests on the western slopes of the Andes with centres of distribution that differ in their temperature and moisture regimes. We tested branch wood from co-occurring specimens of these species for the inherent differences in xylem anatomy and theoretical hydraulic conductance to evaluate their resistance to drought or frost. The hydraulic conductivity of the xylem was calculated using a modified Hagen–Poiseuille equation and related to wood density. Conduit dimensions were used to predict the water potential that would cause 50 % loss of hydraulic conductivity (Ψ ₅₀). Nothofagus alpina, which mainly grows at sites with low frost frequency, exhibited the largest conduits and the highest mean values for conduit area, fraction of conduit area in the cross-section and hydraulic conductivity, but the lowest wood density. Opposite relationships were found in the plastic N. antarctica, whose xylem seems to be least vulnerable to freezing-induced, but also to drought-induced embolism. Calculated Ψ ₅₀ was highest (least negative) in N. alpina, indicating a relatively high susceptibility to cavitation. The xylem of the thermophilic N. obliqua and of N. dombeyi, which mainly occurs under oceanic climate, but can also survive at sporadically dry and warm sites, is not particularly adapted to periods of drought stress. Across all species, wood density was negatively correlated with the calculated hydraulic conductance. The xylem traits of N. alpina might contribute to its relatively high growth rate and facilitate its spread into forest gaps.     

Shortage of declining and damaged sun-exposed trees in European mountain forests limits saproxylic beetles: a case study on the endangered longhorn beetle <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ropalopus ungaricus</Emphasis> (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

European mountain forests are unique ecosystems, and they harbour specific saproxylic beetle fauna, including relict species such as the longhorn beetle Ropalopus ungaricus (Herbst, 1784). This endangered species is endemic to European mountain forests and is considered to be monophagous on living sycamore trees (Acer pseudoplatanus L.). Insufficient knowledge of the species ecology limits its effective conservation. Hence, to investigate its habitat requirements, 175 sycamore trees (87 occupied and 88 unoccupied by the species) were surveyed in the Hrubý Jeseník Mts. and Moravskoslezské Beskydy Mts. in northern Moravia (Czech Republic) in 2016. The species strongly preferred trees with reduced vitality, including variously damaged trees. The species was also documented to be much more abundant on sun-exposed trees, and the parts of the trunk mantle (south- and east-facing quarters) with the warmest microclimates were preferred. Surprisingly, trunk diameter seems to be an unimportant characteristic for this species (the diameters of occupied trees varied between 5 and 72 cm). In conclusion, R. ungaricus is a specialised species whose survival depends upon a continuous supply of sun-exposed declining and damaged sycamores in mountain forests. Based on the results of the present study, we suggest concrete conservation measures to support the species, and these will benefit other saproxylic species associated with the same habitat.     

Patch occupancy and habitat of the hops azure (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Celastrina</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">humulus</Emphasis>), a rare North American endemic butterfly: insights for monitoring and conservation

The hops azure (Celastrina humulus Scott & D. Wright 1998) is a rare butterfly found along the Front Range of Colorado. Data on the prevalence of the butterfly and its preferred habitats are lacking. To describe the habitat of C. humulus at the southern part of its range, explore what factors impact C. humulus detectability, and estimate C. humulus habitat use along a riparian area known to support it, we conducted an occupancy analysis along the largest riparian system at the U.S. Air Force Academy (USAFA) in Colorado, USA. We used environmental and site-specific covariates to model the probability of detection and the probability of occupancy. Probability of detecting C. humulus was influenced by the amount of cloud cover during sampling, while the probability of occupancy was influenced by the total area of the host plant (wild hops) at the site. Probability of detection was higher during the first visit (69 %) than the second visit (64 %), and the probability of occupancy was higher (77 %) than assumed (30 %). Despite the host plant being patchily distributed throughout the butterfly’s range, the riparian areas at USAFA had a high prevalence of both wild hops and C. humulus. We use the project findings to develop future sampling efforts for the butterfly along tributaries at other locales within the butterfly’s range.     

Patterns of microhabitat and larval host-plant use by an imperiled butterfly in northern Florida

The quality of habitat for a given species is fundamental to its persistence in that habitat space. Herbivorous insects often require a specific combination of host plants, floral resources, and physical features such as shelter. Identifying these different habitat features is a focus of ecology and conservation, particularly for managing rare or imperiled taxa. We investigated the patterns of microhabitat and host plant use of the rare frosted elfin butterfly, Callophrys irus, a larval host-plant specialist found in frequently disturbed sand plains, barrens, and sandhill pine-oak forests of the eastern United States. Previous studies have been conducted on populations in the Northeastern and Midwestern US, but the southern part of its range remains unstudied. Our efforts focused on a persistent C. irus colony in northeastern Florida, resulting in a geographically referenced census of larval host-plant Lupinus perennis, along with a multiple year survey of microhabitat features relevant to both C. irus adults and immatures. Results of the larval host-plant census revealed that the highest densities of host plants were located distant to the highest densities of C. irus. Hot-spot analysis confirmed the significance of this pattern, suggesting different habitat requirements for larval host-plant L. perennis and C. irus individuals in order to achieve maximum potential densities. Our survey of C. irus immatures showed a similar pattern of microhabitat affinity that was previously recorded in the Northeast and Midwestern US, including large larval host-plants, low amounts of ground cover vegetation, and the presence of some shade. Unique to our study we found that the presence of other herbivores of L. perennis such as larvae of the crambid moth Uresiphita reversalis had a negative effect on encountering C. irus immatures. Our results suggest that management that aims to conserve these species needs to include habitat factors that favor the overlap of these species and to consider where their densities are the highest.     

Distribution and socio-ecological impacts of the invasive alien cactus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Opuntia stricta</Emphasis> in eastern Africa

Many cactus species have been introduced around the world and have subsequently become major invaders, inducing social and ecological costs. We recorded the distribution of Opuntia stricta in eastern Africa, and conducted 200 household interviews using semi-structured questionnaires to assess local perceptions of O. stricta in Laikipia County, Kenya. Opuntia stricta was widespread and abundant in parts of Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia and present at low densities in Uganda. In Laikipia County, pastoralists identified that O. stricta had been present for more than 10 years, and were of the opinion that it was still spreading and increasing in density. Two-thirds of respondents estimated that 50–75% of valuable grazing land had been invaded, and all felt that it contributed to the ill-health and death of livestock. Other negative impacts included reductions in native plant populations, rangeland condition, human health, and mobility of humans and animals. These negative impacts resulted in economic losses of US$ 500–1000 per household per year for 48% of households. Only 20% of respondents reported actively managing O. stricta, yet all respondents believed a reduction in the abundance of this weed would improve well-being. Management interventions are needed to reduce negative impacts.     

Variation in grazing management practices supports diverse butterfly communities across grassland working landscapes

Landscape changes and resource exploitation have driven global biodiversity declines and reduced provision of ecological functions and services. In grassland working landscapes managed for ecological services and livestock production, it is essential to understand the influence of grazing practices on biodiversity to guide conservation. We used grassland butterflies to investigate the effects of four grazing management practices on biodiversity and pollination services from 2015 to 2016. We hypothesized grazing management practices would generate differing floristic resources that would thereby influence grassland butterfly community composition. To address our hypothesis, we sampled floral resources using belt transects and butterfly community and species level dynamics using line-transect distance sampling. We detected 2578 butterflies representing 34 species. Management practice was not a significant predictor of floral (p?=?0.319) or butterfly community composition (p?=?0.604), and sites under the same management showed dissimilarity in ordination space, indicating differences that may not be associated with grazing practices. At the species level, management explained density for six of nine butterfly species, but no individual management practice was optimal for a majority of detected species. Thus, over the timeframe of this study, grazing management practices did not generate differences in floristic community composition to drive community-level responses in grassland butterflies. Rather, management drove differences in individual species’ abundance within the butterfly community, likely contributing to the butterfly diversity observed at a broader scale.     

Adult demography of an isolated population of the threatened butterfly Scarce Heath <Emphasis Type="Italic">Coenonympha hero</Emphasis> and its conservation implications

Scarce Heath Coenonympha hero is considered to be one of the most seriously threatened European butterflies, especially declining in western and central Europe. It usually occurs in small, discrete colonies forming metapopulation systems, but the exchange of individuals between habitat patches is considered limited. Therefore the persistence of the species in fragmented systems is likely to depend largely on the demography of local populations. We investigated a highly isolated population of the species in Poland with mark-release-recapture (MRR). The seasonal population size was assessed at 168 adults, with a well balanced sex ratio. The slightly higher capture probability of females that we recorded is quite atypical for butterflies and may be related to the vegetation structure at the site. The flight period was relatively short (22 days), and the adult life span was estimated at 6.59 days, i.e., twice as long when compared with adult longevity in two other threatened Coenonympha species. Consequently, the temporal fragmentation index (i.e., the ratio of flight period length to adult life span) was calculated at 3.3, which is the lowest value recorded among all congeneric species, suggesting that temporal fragmentation is not a major problem in the investigated population. Nevertheless, the population may be at risk of extinction due to its small size and isolation. Moreover, the area of C. hero habitat has decreased considerably over the last decade due to afforestation. Our findings indicate the need for immediate conservation actions, in particular for the removal of tree seedlings that encroach on the butterfly habitat.     

Chromosomal and molecular studies of cryptic species of the subgenus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Terricola</Emphasis> (Rodentia,Arvicolinae, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Microtus</Emphasis>) in the Caucasian region: Analysis of new records

Using chromosomal and molecular (cytb) markers, the specific identity of 78 individuals of cryptic species of voles of the subgenus Terricola was ascertained. The animal samples were obtained at 13 localities of the Caucasian region, from Krasnodar krai to North Ossetia in the Greater Caucasus and in the Stavropol Upland (forest island in the steppe) in Ciscaucasia, which had not been covered earlier in genetic studies. In the total sample, two chromosomal forms (cryptic species), namely, Microtus (Terricola) majori (2n = 54, NF = 60) and M. (T.) daghestanicus (2n = 54, NF = 58), were identified. The specific identity of most animals tested was confirmed by karyological means, and for individuals from two localities on the south slopes of the Greater Caucasus (Adlerskii district of Krasnodar krai), it was confirmed exclusively by means of molecular (cytb) markers. The last two records were used for evaluation of the differential role of sibling-species of the subgenus Terricola in circulation of the pathogen in mountain loci of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) in the Western Caucasus. For the first time, using the example of M. (T.) majori from the Ciscaucasia, which was compared with those of the mountain part of the species’ natural habitat, the role of isolation factors in morphogenesis of the subgenus Terricola was studied. As a whole, the results obtained specify the character of the geographical distribution and biotope attachment of cryptic species of the subgenus Terricola in the Caucasian region.     

All natural habitat edges matter equally for endangered <Emphasis Type="Italic">Maculinea</Emphasis> butterflies

An obvious consequence of habitat fragmentation is an increasing role of habitat edges for species survival. Recently it has been suggested that the endangered butterfly Maculinea nausithous prefers forested edges of its meadow habitats. However, the prevalence of forests in the study area used for this analysis makes it impossible to distinguish whether the effect detected is a genuine preference for forest edges or a preference for any natural patch edges as opposed to patch interiors. We investigated habitat selection by Maculinea nausithous and Maculinea teleius occurring sympatrically at five habitat patches surrounded by mosaic landscape. Butterfly capture positions were marked with GPS and subsequently analysed with GIS software. Both species avoided the interiors of their patches and concentrated in the edge zone, but these preferences were visible only at three larger patches exceeding 1 ha in area. Among different types of edges those bordering densely built-up areas were avoided, whereas all natural edges (adjacent to forests, reeds or grasslands) were similarly used. We hypothesise that preferences towards natural patch edges, regardless of their type, can be explained by the spatial interactions between Maculinea butterflies and Myrmica ants they parasitise. Patch surroundings constitute refuge space for the ants, and hence their densities may be expected to be higher near patch edges. Our findings indicate the importance of patch surroundings for the persistence of Maculinea populations. Regretfully, current legal framework makes it difficult to protect patch surroundings, where neither priority species nor their habitats occur.