Expression of caveolin-1 induces premature cellular senescence in primary cultures of murine fibroblasts

Caveolae are vesicular invaginations of the plasma membrane. Caveolin-1 is the principal structural component of caveolae in vivo. Several lines of evidence are consistent with the idea that caveolin-1 functions as a "transformation suppressor" protein. In fact, caveolin-1 mRNA and protein expression are lost or reduced during cell transformation by activated oncogenes. Interestingly, the human caveolin-1 gene is localized to a suspected tumor suppressor locus (7q31.1). We have previously demonstrated that overexpression of caveolin-1 arrests mouse embryonic fibroblasts in the G(0)/G(1) phase of the cell cycle through activation of a p53/p21-dependent pathway, indicating a role of caveolin-1 in mediating growth arrest. However, it remains unknown whether overexpression of caveolin-1 promotes cellular senescence in vivo. Here, we demonstrate that mouse embryonic fibroblasts transgenically overexpressing caveolin-1 show: 1) a reduced proliferative lifespan; 2) senescence-like cell morphology; and 3) a senescence-associated increase in beta-galactosidase activity. These results indicate for the first time that the expression of caveolin-1 in vivo is sufficient to promote and maintain the senescent phenotype. Subcytotoxic oxidative stress is known to induce premature senescence in diploid fibroblasts. Interestingly, we show that subcytotoxic level of hydrogen peroxide induces premature senescence in NIH 3T3 cells and increases endogenous caveolin-1 expression. Importantly, quercetin and vitamin E, two antioxidant agents, successfully prevent the premature senescent phenotype and the up-regulation of caveolin-1 induced by hydrogen peroxide. Also, we demonstrate that hydrogen peroxide alone, but not in combination with quercetin, stimulates the caveolin-1 promoter activity. Interestingly, premature senescence induced by hydrogen peroxide is greatly reduced in NIH 3T3 cells harboring antisense caveolin-1. Importantly, induction of premature senescence is recovered when caveolin-1 levels are restored. Taken together, these results clearly indicate a central role for caveolin-1 in promoting cellular senescence and they suggest the hypothesis that premature senescence may represent a tumor suppressor function mediated by caveolin-1 in vivo.     

Combined loss of INK4a and caveolin-1 synergistically enhances cell proliferation and oncogene-induced tumorigenesis: role of INK4a/CAV-1 in mammary epithelial cell hyperplasia

Tumorigenesis is a multistep process that involves a series of genetic changes or "multiple hits," leading to alterations in signaling, proliferation, immortalization, and transformation. Many of the molecular factors that govern tumor initiation and progression remain unknown. Here, we evaluate the transformation suppressor potential of caveolin-1 (Cav-1) and its ability to cooperate with a well established tumor suppressor, the INK4a locus. To study the effects of loss of caveolin-1 on cellular transformation, we established immortalized primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) expressing and lacking caveolin-1 by interbreeding Cav-1 (+/+) and Cav-1 (-/-) mice with INK4a (-/-) mice. Analysis of these cells reveals that loss of caveolin-1 confers a significant growth advantage, as measured via cellular proliferation and cell cycle analysis. Loss of caveolin-1 in the INK4a (-/-) genetic background results in constitutive hyperactivation of the p42/44 MAP kinase cascade, decreased expression of p21(Cip1), as well as cyclin D1 and PCNA overexpression, consistent with their hyperproliferative phenotype. Importantly, in cells lacking Cav-1 expression, transformation by activated oncogenes (H-Ras(G12V) or v-Src) results in increased tumor growth in vivo (up to >40-fold). Finally, INK4a (-/-)/Cav-1 (-/-) mice demonstrate disturbed mammary epithelial ductal morphology, with hyperplasia, increased side-branching, and fibrosis. Our results provide important new evidence for the transformation suppressor properties of Cav-1 and the first molecular genetic evidence that Cav-1 cooperates with a tumor suppressor, namely the INK4a genetic locus.     

8-chloroadenosine induced HL-60 cell growth inhibition, differentiation, and G(0)/G(1) arrest involves attenuated cyclin D1 and telomerase and up-regulated p21(WAF1/CIP1)

8-Chloroadenosine, an active dephosphorylated metabolite of the antineoplastic agent 8-chloroadenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (8-Cl-cAMP), induces growth inhibition in multiple carcinomas. Here we report that 8-chloroadenosine inhibits growth in human promyelocytic leukemia HL-60 cells by a G(0)/G(1) phase arrest and terminates cell differentiation along the granulocytic lineage. The mechanism of 8-chloroadenosine-induced G(0)/G(1) arrest is independent of apoptosis. The expressions of cyclin D1 and c-myc in HL-60 are suppressed by 8-chloroadenosine, whereas the cyclin-dependent kinases inhibitor p21(WAF1/CIP1) is up-regulated. 8-Chloroadenosine has less effect on the expressions of cyclin-dependent kinase (cdk)2 and cdk4, G(1) phase cyclin-dependent kinases, and only moderately induces the expression of transforming growth factor beta1 (TGFbeta1) and the mitotic inhibitor p27(KIP1). Telomerase activity is reduced in extracts of 8-chloroadenosine treated HL-60 cells, but 8-chloroadenosine does not directly inhibit the catalytic activity of telomerase in vitro. Therefore, anti-proliferation of HL-60 cells by 8-chloroadenosine involves coordination of cyclin D1 suppression, reduction of telomerase activity, and up-regulation of p21(WAF1/CIP1) that arrest cell-cycle progression at G(0)/G(1) phase and terminate cell differentiation.     

Curcumin selectively induces apoptosis in deregulated cyclin D1-expressed cells at G2 phase of cell cycle in a p53-dependent manner

Curcumin (diferuloylmethane) is known to induce apoptosis in tumor cells. In asynchronous cultures, with time-lapse video-micrography in combination with quantitative fluorescence microscopy, we have demonstrated that curcumin induces apoptosis at G(2) phase of cell cycle in deregulated cyclin D1-expressed mammary epithelial carcinoma cells, leaving its normal counterpart unaffected. In our search toward delineating the molecular mechanisms behind such differential activities of curcumin, we found that it selectively increases p53 expression at G(2) phase of carcinoma cells and releases cytochrome c from mitochondria, which is an essential requirement for apoptosis. Further experiments using p53-null as well as dominant-negative and wild-type p53-transfected cells have established that curcumin induces apoptosis in carcinoma cells via a p53-dependent pathway. On the other hand, curcumin reversibly inhibits normal mammary epithelial cell cycle progression by down-regulating cyclin D1 expression and blocking its association with Cdk4/Cdk6 as well as by inhibiting phosphorylation and inactivation of retinoblastoma protein. In addition, curcumin significantly up-regulates cell cycle inhibitory protein (p21Waf-1) in normal cells and arrests them in G(0) phase of cell cycle. Therefore, these cells escape from curcumin-induced apoptosis at G(2) phase. Interestingly, these processes remain unaffected by curcumin in carcinoma cells where cyclin D1 expression is high. Similarly, in ectopically overexpressed system, curcumin cannot down-regulate cyclin D1 and thus block cell cycle progression. Hence, these cells progress into G(2) phase and undergo apoptosis. These observations together suggest that curcumin may have a possible therapeutic potential in breast cancer patients.     

Caveolin-1抑制胰腺癌细胞PANC1的体内外生长和增殖

窖蛋白-1(caveolin-1)是胞膜窖(caveolae)中重要的结构和功能蛋白.Caveolin-1参与细胞的多种生命活动并与恶性肿瘤的发生相关.为探讨caveolin-1对胰腺癌细胞PANC1的体外增殖、迁移、侵袭以及裸鼠体内成瘤能力的影响,通过基因转染技术培育caveolin-1过表达细胞株PANC1/cav-1作为实验组,转染空载体细胞株PANC1/vector作为对照组,采用RT-PCR及Western blot方法检测caveolin-1的表达量,流式细胞术分析细胞周期,软琼脂细胞克隆实验检测细胞增殖能力,侵袭小室实验检测癌细胞迁移和侵袭的能力,建立裸鼠皮下种植瘤模型并检测肿瘤组织的增殖与凋亡.PANC1/cav-1中的caveolin-1表达稳定,表达量明显高于对照组细胞株和亲本细胞株(P<0.01),细胞周期检测显示大量PANC1/cav-1细胞被抑制于G0/G1期,caveolin-1抑制PANC1的增殖,迁移和侵袭能力.在裸鼠的体内实验中,caveolin-1显著抑制PANC1细胞在裸鼠体内的生长,Ki-67染色和TUNEL染色表明在PANC1细胞中过表达caveolin-1,可以抑制肿瘤增殖并诱导肿瘤凋亡.上述结果表明,caveolin-1可能通过对胰腺癌细胞周期的影响(抑制于G0/G1期),抑制胰腺癌PANC1细胞在体内外的增殖、迁移和侵袭,并导致肿瘤凋亡.     

The human cytomegalovirus UL82 gene product (pp71) accelerates progression through the G1 phase of the cell cycle

As viruses are reliant upon their host cell to serve as proper environments for their replication, many have evolved mechanisms to alter intracellular conditions to suit their own needs. For example, human cytomegalovirus induces quiescent cells to enter the cell cycle and then arrests them in late G(1), before they enter the S phase, a cell cycle compartment that is presumably favorable for viral replication. Here we show that the protein product of the human cytomegalovirus UL82 gene, pp71, can accelerate the movement of cells through the G(1) phase of the cell cycle. This activity would help infected cells reach the late G(1) arrest point sooner and thus may stimulate the infectious cycle. pp71 also induces DNA synthesis in quiescent cells, but a pp71 mutant protein that is unable to induce quiescent cells to enter the cell cycle still retains the ability to accelerate the G(1) phase. Thus, the mechanism through which pp71 accelerates G(1) cell cycle progression appears to be distinct from the one that it employs to induce quiescent cells to exit G(0) and subsequently enter the S phase.     

Activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in G2 phase delays mitotic entry through p21CIP1

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase activity is essential for mediating cell cycle progression from G(1) phase to S phase (DNA synthesis). In contrast, the role of extracellular signal-regulated kinase during G(2) phase and mitosis (M phase) is largely undefined. Previous studies have suggested that inhibition of basal extracellular signal-regulated kinase activity delays G(2)- and M-phase progression. In the current investigation, we have examined the consequence of activating the extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway during G(2) phase on subsequent progression through mitosis. Using synchronized HeLa cells, we show that activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate or epidermal growth factor during G(2) phase causes a rapid cell cycle arrest in G(2) as measured by flow cytometry, mitotic indices and cyclin B1 expression. This G(2)-phase arrest was reversed by pre-treatment with bisindolylmaleimide or U0126, which are selective inhibitors of protein kinase C proteins or the extracellular signal-regulated kinase activators, MEK1/2, respectively. The extracellular signal-regulated kinase-mediated delay in M-phase entry appeared to involve de novo synthesis of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, p21(CIP1), during G(2) through a p53-independent mechanism. To establish a function for the increased expression of p21(CIP1) and delayed cell cycle progression, we show that extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation in G(2)-phase cells results in an increased number of cells containing chromosome aberrations characteristic of genomic instability. The presence of chromosome aberrations following extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation during G(2)-phase was further augmented in cells lacking p21(CIP1). These findings suggest that p21(CIP1) mediated inhibition of cell cycle progression during G(2)/M phase protects against inappropriate activation of signalling pathways, which may cause excessive chromosome damage and be detrimental to cell survival.     

A discrete cell cycle checkpoint in late G(1) that is cytoskeleton-dependent and MAP kinase (Erk)-independent

Cell spreading on extracellular matrix and associated changes in the actin cytoskeleton (CSK) are necessary for progression through G(1) and entry into S phase of the cell cycle. Pharmacological disruption of CSK integrity inhibits early mitogenic signaling to the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk) subfamily of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and arrests the cell cycle in G(1). Here we show that this block of G(1) progression is not simply a consequence of inhibition of the MAPK/Erk pathway but instead it reveals the existence of a discrete CSK-sensitive checkpoint. Use of PD98059 to inhibit MAPK/Erk and cytochalasin D (Cyto D) to disrupt the actin CSK at progressive time points in G(1) revealed that the requirement for MAPK/Erk activation lasts only to mid-G(1), while the actin CSK must remain intact up to late G(1) restriction point, R, in order for capillary endothelial cells to enter S phase. Additional analysis using Cyto D pulses defined a narrow time window of 3 h just prior to R in which CSK integrity was shown to be critical for the G(1)/S transition. Cyto D treatment led to down-regulation of cyclin D1 protein and accumulation of the cdk inhibitor, p27(Kip1), independent of cell cycle phase, suggesting that these changes resulted directly from CSK disruption rather than from a general cell cycle block. Together, these data indicate the existence of a distinct time window in late G(1) in which signals elicited by the CSK act independently of early MAPK/Erk signals to drive the cell cycle machinery through the G(1)/S boundary and, hence, promote cell growth.     

RACK1 regulates G1/S progression by suppressing Src kinase activity

Cancer genes exert their greatest influence on the cell cycle by targeting regulators of a critical checkpoint in late G(1). Once cells pass this checkpoint, they are fated to replicate DNA and divide. Cancer cells subvert controls at work at this restriction point and remain in cycle. Previously, we showed that RACK1 inhibits the oncogenic Src tyrosine kinase and NIH 3T3 cell growth. RACK1 inhibits cell growth, in part, by prolonging G(0)/G(1). Here we show that RACK1 overexpression induces a partial G(1) arrest by suppressing Src activity at the G(1) checkpoint. RACK1 works through Src to inhibit Vav2, Rho GTPases, Stat3, and Myc. Consequently, cyclin D1 and cyclin-dependent kinases 4 and 2 (CDK4 and CDK2, respectively) are suppressed, CDK inhibitor p27 and retinoblastoma protein are activated, E2F1 is sequestered, and G(1)/S progression is delayed. Conversely, downregulation of RACK1 by short interference RNA activates Src-mediated signaling, induces Myc and cyclin D1, and accelerates G(1)/S progression. RACK1 suppresses Src- but not mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent platelet-derived growth factor signaling. We also show that Stat3 is required for Rac1 induction of Myc. Our results reveal a novel mechanism of cell cycle control in late G(1) that works via an endogenous inhibitor of the Src kinase.     

Targeted p21(WAF1/CIP1) Activation by RNAa Inhibits Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

RNA activation (RNAa) is a mechanism of gene activation triggered by promoter-targeted small double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), also known as small activating RNA (saRNA). p21(WAF1/CIP1) (p21) is a putative tumor suppressor gene due to its role as a key negative regulator of the cell cycle and cell proliferation. It is frequently downregulated in cancer including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), but is rarely mutated or deleted, making it an ideal target for RNAa-based overexpression to restore its tumor suppressor function. In the present study, we investigated the antigrowth effects of p21 RNAa in HCC cells. Transfection of a p21 saRNA (dsP21-322) into HepG2 and Hep3B cells significantly induced the expression of p21 at both the mRNA and protein levels, and inhibited cell proliferation and survival. Further analysis of dsP21-322 transfected cells revealed that dsP21-322 arrested the cell cycle at the G(0)/G(1) phase in HepG2 cells but at G(2)/M phase in Hep3B cells which lack functional p53 and Rb genes, and induced both early and late stage apoptosis by activating caspase 3 in both cell lines. These results demonstrated that RNAa of p21 has in vitro antigrowth effects on HCC cells via impeding cell cycle progression and inducing apoptotic cell death. This study suggests that targeted activation of p21 by RNAa may be explored as a novel therapy for the treatment of HCC.     

Caveolin-1 null (-/-) mice show dramatic reductions in life span

Caveolae are 50-100 nm flask-shaped invaginations of the plasma membrane found in most cell types. Caveolin-1 is the principal protein component of caveolae membranes in nonmuscle cells. The recent development of Cav-1-deficient mice has allowed investigators to study the in vivo functional role of caveolae in the context of a whole animal model, as these mice lack morphologically detectable caveolae membrane domains. Surprisingly, Cav-1 null mice are both viable and fertile. However, it remains unknown whether loss of caveolin-1 significantly affects the overall life span of these animals. To quantitatively determine whether loss of Cav-1 gene expression confers any survival disadvantages with increasing age, we generated a large cohort of mice (n = 180), consisting of Cav-1 wild-type (+/+) (n = 53), Cav-1 heterozygous (+/-) (n = 70), and Cav-1 knockout (-/-) (n = 57) animals, and monitored their long-term survival over a 2 year period. Here, we show that Cav-1 null (-/-) mice exhibit an approximately 50% reduction in life span, with major declines in viability occurring between 27 and 65 weeks of age. However, Cav-1 heterozygous (+/-) mice did not show any changes in long-term survival, indicating that loss of both Cav-1 alleles is required to mediate a reduction in life span. Mechanistically, these dramatic reductions in life span appear to be secondary to a combination of pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary hypertension, and cardiac hypertrophy in Cav-1 null mice. Taken together, our results provide the first demonstration that loss of Cav-1 gene expression and caveolae organelles dramatically affects the long-term survival of an organism. In addition, aged Cav-1 null mice may provide a new animal model to study the pathogenesis and treatment of progressive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and sudden cardiac death syndrome.     

Roles for basal and stimulated p21(Cip-1/WAF1/MDA6) expression and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling in radiation-induced cell cycle checkpoint control in carcinoma cells

We investigated the role of the cdk inhibitor protein p21(Cip-1/WAF1/MDA6) (p21) in the ability of MAPK pathway inhibition to enhance radiation-induced apoptosis in A431 squamous carcinoma cells. In carcinoma cells, ionizing radiation (2 Gy) caused both primary (0-10 min) and secondary (90-240 min) activations of the MAPK pathway. Radiation induced p21 protein expression in A431 cells within 6 h via secondary activation of the MAPK pathway. Within 6 h, radiation weakly enhanced the proportion of cells in G(1) that were p21 and MAPK dependent, whereas the elevation of cells present in G(2)/M at this time was independent of either p21 expression or MAPK inhibition. Inhibition of the MAPK pathway increased the proportion of irradiated cells in G(2)/M phase 24-48 h after irradiation and enhanced radiation-induced apoptosis. This correlated with elevated Cdc2 tyrosine 15 phosphorylation, decreased Cdc2 activity, and decreased Cdc25C protein levels. Caffeine treatment or removal of MEK1/2 inhibitors from cells 6 h after irradiation reduced the proportion of cells present in G(2)/M phase at 24 h and abolished the ability of MAPK inhibition to potentiate radiation-induced apoptosis. These data argue that MAPK signaling plays an important role in the progression/release of cells through G(2)/M phase after radiation exposure and that an impairment of this progression/release enhances radiation-induced apoptosis. Surprisingly, the ability of irradiation/MAPK inhibition to increase the proportion of cells in G(2)/M at 24 h was found to be dependent on basal p21 expression. Transient inhibition of basal p21 expression increased the control level of apoptosis as well as the abilities of both radiation and MEK1/2 inhibitors to cause apoptosis. In addition, loss of basal p21 expression significantly reduced the capacity of MAPK inhibition to potentiate radiation-induced apoptosis. Collectively, our data argue that MAPK signaling and p21 can regulate cell cycle checkpoint control in carcinoma cells at the G(1)/S transition shortly after exposure to radiation. In contrast, inhibition of MAPK increases the proportion of irradiated cells in G(2)/M, and basal expression of p21 is required to maintain this effect. Our data suggest that basal and radiation-stimulated p21 may play different roles in regulating cell cycle progression that affect cell survival after radiation exposure.     

AML1/RUNX1 increases during G1 to S cell cycle progression independent of cytokine-dependent phosphorylation and induces cyclin D3 gene expression

AML1/RUNX1, a member of the core binding factor (CBF) family stimulates myelopoiesis and lymphopoiesis by activating lineage-specific genes. In addition, AML1 induces S phase entry in 32Dcl3 myeloid or Ba/F3 lymphoid cells via transactivation. We now found that AML1 levels are regulated during the cell cycle. 32Dcl3 and Ba/F3 cell cycle fractions were prepared using elutriation. Western blotting and a gel shift/supershift assay demonstrated that endogenous CBF DNA binding and AML1 levels were increased 2-4-fold in S and G(2)/M phase cells compared with G(1) cells. In addition, G(1) arrest induced by mimosine reduced AML1 protein levels. In contrast, AML1 RNA did not vary during cell cycle progression relative to actin RNA. Analysis of exogenous Myc-AML1 or AML1-ER demonstrated a significant reduction in G(1) phase cells, whereas levels of exogenous DNA binding domain alone were constant, lending support to the conclusion that regulation of AML1 protein stability contributes to cell cycle variation in endogenous AML1. However, cytokine-dependent AML1 phosphorylation was independent of cell cycle phase, and an AML1 mutant lacking two ERK phosphorylation sites was still cell cycle-regulated. Inhibition of AML1 activity with the CBFbeta-SMMHC or AML1-ETO oncoproteins reduced cyclin D3 RNA expression, and AML1 bound and activated the cyclin D3 promoter. Signals stimulating G(1) to S cell cycle progression or entry into the cell cycle in immature hematopoietic cells might do so in part by inducing AML1 expression, and mutations altering pathways regulating variation in AML1 stability potentially contribute to leukemic transformation.     

A new compound which reversibly arrests T lymphocyte cell cycle near the G1/S boundary

A novel cell cycle blocking agent profoundly suppressed the proliferation of mitogen-stimulated T lymphocytes. The carboxythiazole derivative arrested cells in the G1 phase of the cell cycle but did not inhibit the induction of cell surface receptors for either interleukin-2 or transferrin. The uncoupling of transferrin receptor expression from DNA synthesis indicated that a previously undefined restriction point in the cell cycle has been identified which occurs after transferrin receptor expression in late G1 and just prior to the initiation of DNA replication in S phase. T cells incubated in an inhibitory dose of the carboxythiazole derivative resumed cell cycle progression subsequent to its removal, indicating that the compound reversibly arrests cells at the late G1 restriction point. In contrast to other techniques which have been inefficient in achieving T cell synchronization, T cells released from the block mediated by the carboxythiazole compound progress through S phase with a considerable degree of synchrony.     

过表达UHRF2通过上调p53及p21表达引起HEK293细胞G1期阻滞

UHRF2（ubiquitin like with PHD and ring finger domains 2）是新近发现的具有多个结构域的核蛋白,在细胞周期调控和表观遗传学中发挥重要作用．近期研究提示,UHRF2是肿瘤抑制蛋白p53的1个E3连接酶,在体内外能与p53相互结合并促进其泛素化,过表达UHRF2能使细胞周期停滞于G1期．然而,UHRF2介导的G1期阻滞及其与p53联系尚不清楚．通过共转染UHRF2质粒及p53特异性小干扰RNA(siRNAs)到HEK293细胞构建细胞模型,探索UHRF2引起细胞周期停滞与p53之间的关系．结果显示,UHRF2能促进HEK293细胞中p53的稳定,从而引起p21 (CIP1/WAF1)基因表达,并使细胞周期停滞于G1期;但在siRNA抑制p53的表达后p21(CIP1/WAF1)表达降低,UHRF2引起的细胞周期阻滞消除．研究结果提示,UHRF2可通过稳定p53,上调p21的表达,从而介导细胞周期阻滞于G1期;同时UHRF2可能参与细胞周期调控及DNA损伤反应（DNA damage response, DDR）．UHRF2稳定p53的具体分子机制及其在DDR中的作用有待进一步研究证明．