Cephaloziella tahora Bever. & Glenny,a new species of Cephaloziella (Jungermanniopsida,Cephaloziellaceae) from eastern Taranaki,New Zealand

Cephaloziella tahora, a new species of Cephaloziella is described and illustrated from a lowland forest habitat in eastern Taranaki in the North Island of New Zealand. It has similarities to six other New Zealand species of Cephaloziella, and appears closest in New Zealand to Cephaloziella aenigmatica R.M.Schust. It is defined by a unique combination of features and distinguished from C. aenigmatica and other New Zealand species by having entire, distant leaves that reach the dorsal stem mid-line, and have large conspicuous hemispherical and hemi-ellipsoidal papillae, underleaves on gemmiparous and gynoecial shoots, and by its dioecy. The addition brings the number of New Zealand species of Cephaloziella to 18, 12 of which are endemic to New Zealand.     

Biology and Host Range of Phytomyza vitalbae and its Establishment for the Biological Control of Clematis vitalba in New Zealand

Phytomyza vitalbae Kaltenbach (Diptera: Agromyzidae) creates mines in leaves of Clematis vitalba , a significant environmental weed in New Zealand. Studies in Europe found that most leaves had one mine, but some had many; heavy mining deformed leaves and reduced photosynthetic area.; P. vitalbae was multi-voltine; fecundity averaged 521 eggs per female; and larval parasitism was high. Together, these biological characteristics suggested it had the capacity to produce large populations in the absence of parasitism. P. vitalbae has been recorded on other Clematis species in Europe, and experimental determination of host range confirmed this species was narrowly oligophagous, but posed no significant risk to New Zealand native plants. Results suggested mines might be produced in some exotic Clematis species growing in New Zealand, but only where flies fed on C. vitalba before ovipositing. P. vitalbae was released from quarantine in New Zealand in 1996. It is considered to be established at 20 of the 29 release sites, and populations have grown rapidly at those sites. The fly spread 5 km within 15 months at one site. Three parasitoids have been reared from P. vitalbae mines since its release in New Zealand, but it is uncertain whether parasitism will adversely affect leafminer populations.     

Redescription of Closterocerus cruy (Girault) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae: Entedoninae), with new geographical and host records

Abstract  Closterocerus cruy (Girault) is newly recorded, both from New Zealand and as a parasitoid of lepidopteran leafminers. The species is redescribed from the Girault type and from New Zealand material. Diagnostic character states are provided for the separation of C. cruy from the closely related Australian agromyzid parasitoid C. mirabilis Edwards and LaSalle.     

Fleshy-fruitedness in the New Zealand flora

Aim It has been claimed that the New Zealand flora has an unusually high frequency of fleshy-fruitedness. This paper tests whether fleshy-fruitedness is indeed more common in New Zealand than in other temperate floras, then examines the distribution of fleshy-fruitedness among taxa and floristic elements to determine whether the flora conforms to predictions for a continental island with a relictual floristic element. Lastly, I test the extent to which fleshy-fruitedness has influenced colonization success and subsequent speciation within New Zealand. Methods Information on fruit characteristics for all indigenous seed plants was extracted from the Flora of New Zealand series and analysed with χ² tests. Results Contrary to previous claims fleshy-fruitedness was not unusually common in the New Zealand flora as a whole, when compared with other temperate floras. It is only more common in alpine communities and among trees. I also found no evidence for selective immigration; fleshy-fruited New Zealand genera were not more likely, than dry-fruited genera, to also occur in Australia. Furthermore there is no evidence that the New Zealand environment has favoured fleshy-fruited taxa; there has been no autochthonous evolution of fleshy-fruitedness in New Zealand, fleshy-fruitedness has had no significant effect on speciation within New Zealand, and endemic genera are no more likely to be fleshy-fruited than nonendemic genera. Fleshy-fruitedness in New Zealand is, however, strongly related to floristic elements of the flora. New Zealand is a continental island and therefore, theoretically, those elements of the flora dating from a time when the landmass was less isolated, should show a more balanced representation of dispersal modes. Contrary to this, fleshy-fruitedness is more common among species in Gondwanan taxa or in taxa with pollen records dating to before the Miocene. Main conclusions Fleshy-fruitedness in New Zealand conforms to neither the expectations for an isolated landmasses, namely a disharmonic range of dispersal modes, nor expectations for a continental island. I suggest that this pattern may be a product of selective survival of highly vagile taxa in the low-lying archipelago that was New Zealand during the late Cretaceous to mid-Cenozoic, followed by an invasion by taxa with a broader range of dispersal modes facilitated by the establishment of the circumpolar current.     

Polytrichum commune Hedw. and Polytrichadelphus magellanicus (Hedw.) Mitt. used as decorative material on New Zealand Maori cloaks

Abstract

Confirmation of the occurrence of the moss Ptychomnion densifolium on the main islands of New Zealand is provided and the features which separate it from the more common P. aciculare are outlined. A brief account of the history of P. densifolium in New Zealand is given and its morphology there is discussed. A key to the two species in New Zealand is provided and habitat differences between them outlined. New Zealand material differs from type locality (Tristan d' Acunha) material in having longer and more twisted acumens, and in this respect is similar to New Zealand material of P. aciculare. New Zealand populations of P. densifolium are recognisable in having stem leaves reflexed from an oblong sheathing base, and well developed basal leaf plications. It is a relatively widespread species in New Zealand, occurring in mostly upper elevation, open sites.     

South American Origins of Microctonus hyperodae Loan (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) Established in New Zealand as Defined by Morphometric Analysis

Eight South American geographic populations of the thelytokous parasitoid Microctonus hyperodae Loan (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) were released in New Zealand in 1991 to assist in the suppression of the pasture pest Listronotus bonariensis (Kuschel) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). With one exception, parasitoids from each South American geographic population were released in equal numbers at each New Zealand release site. It was postulated that the South American geographic population(s) best suited to the conditions encountered at each New Zealand release locality would eventually become prevalent there. A morphometric analysis of adult parasitoids of known South American origins, reported previously, allowed M. hyperodae derived from west of the Andes (i.e. two collection sites in Chile) to be distinguished from parasitoids derived from east of the Andes (i.e. three collection sites in Argentina and one each in Brazil and Uruguay). Parasitoids derived from a fourth site in Argentina (S. C. de Bariloche) could not be clearly discriminated from either the 'east of the Andes' or 'west of the Andes' categories. A morphometric analysis of M. hyperodae adults collected from five of the New Zealand release sites from 1992-1994 is presented in this contribution. The analysis indicated that parasitoids derived from east of the Andes were significantly more prevalent than expected. The possible reasons for the initial success in New Zealand of one or more east of the Andes populations include the greater fecundity of M. hyperodae collected in Uruguay and the likelihood that M. hyperodae from east of the Andes co-evolved more recently with the stock from which New Zealand's L. bonariensis was founded.     

Ancient DNA Resolves Identity and Phylogeny of New Zealand's Extinct and Living Quail (Coturnix sp.)

Background

The New Zealand quail, Coturnix novaezealandiae, was widespread throughout New Zealand until its rapid extinction in the 1870''s. To date, confusion continues to exist concerning the identity of C. novaezealandiae and its phylogenetic relationship to Coturnix species in neighbouring Australia, two of which, C. ypsilophora and C. pectoralis, were introduced into New Zealand as game birds. The Australian brown quail, C. ypsilophora, was the only species thought to establish with current populations distributed mainly in the northern part of the North Island of New Zealand. Owing to the similarities between C. ypsilophora, C. pectoralis, and C. novaezealandiae, uncertainty has arisen over whether the New Zealand quail is indeed extinct, with suggestions that remnant populations of C. novaezealandiae may have survived on offshore islands.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Using fresh and historical samples of Coturnix sp. from New Zealand and Australia, DNA analysis of selected mitochondrial regions was carried out to determine phylogenetic relationships and species status. Results show that Coturnix sp. specimens from the New Zealand mainland and offshore island Tiritiri Matangi are not the New Zealand quail but are genetically identical to C. ypsilophora from Australia and can be classified as the same species. Furthermore, cytochrome b and COI barcoding analysis of the New Zealand quail and Australia''s C. pectoralis, often confused in museum collections, show that they are indeed separate species that diverged approximately 5 million years ago (mya). Gross morphological analysis of these birds suggests a parallel loss of sustained flight with very little change in other phenotypic characters such as plumage or skeletal structure.

Conclusion/Significance

Ancient DNA has proved invaluable for the detailed analysis and identification of extinct and morphologically cryptic taxa such as that of quail and can provide insights into the timing of evolutionary changes that influence morphology.     

Phylogenetic Position and Subspecies Divergence of the Endangered New Zealand Dotterel (Charadrius obscurus)

The New Zealand Dotterel (Charadrius obscurus), an endangered shorebird of the family Charadriidae, is endemic to New Zealand where two subspecies are recognized. These subspecies are not only separated geographically, with C. o. aquilonius being distributed in the New Zealand North Island and C. o. obscurus mostly restricted to Stewart Island, but also differ substantially in morphology and behavior. Despite these divergent traits, previous work has failed to detect genetic differentiation between the subspecies, and the question of when and where the two populations separated is still open. Here, we use mitochondrial and nuclear markers to address molecular divergence between the subspecies, and apply maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods to place C. obscurus within the non-monophyletic genus Charadrius. Despite very little overall differentiation, distinct haplotypes for the subspecies were detected, thus supporting molecular separation of the northern and southern populations. Phylogenetic analysis recovers a monophyletic clade combining the New Zealand Dotterel with two other New Zealand endemic shorebirds, the Wrybill and the Double-Banded Plover, thus suggesting a single dispersal event as the origin of this group. Divergence dates within Charadriidae were estimated with BEAST 2, and our results indicate a Middle Miocene origin of New Zealand endemic Charadriidae, a Late Miocene emergence of the lineage leading to the New Zealand Dotterel, and a Middle to Late Pleistocene divergence of the two New Zealand Dotterel subspecies.     

“Barcoding” and ISSR data illuminate a problematic infraspecific taxonomy for Chrysanthemoides monilifera (Calenduleae; Asteraceae): Lessons for biocontrol of a noxious weed

Chrysanthemoides monilifera Tourn. ex Medik is a noxious weed in Australia and New Zealand. It is a widespread species in southern Africa, where it shows considerable morphological variation that has resulted in a confusing infraspecific taxonomy. We use DNA sequence data from the nuclear Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region from 78 samples of this species from its indigenous distribution range and 10 samples from Australia and New Zealand to determine the regions of origin of the invasive plants. These data are augmented by a smaller study using ISSR markers. Bayesian Inference analysis was somewhat resolved, with many weakly supported nodes. Clades with support tended to correspond to infraspecific taxonomic entities, and were geographically coherent. In contrast, a neighbour-net analysis was not as well resolved and indicated considerable reticulation. All analyses of ITS data retrieved two major clades corresponding to Western and Eastern distributions, with some overlap. Samples from New Zealand and Australia correspond to the taxon C. monilifera subsp. monilifera, and are resolved as most closely related to samples from the greater Cape Town area. Biological control agent populations for C. monilifera subsp. monilifera should be sourced from this region in order to avoid host plant incompatibility problems.     

The end of an 80-million year experiment: a review of evidence describing the impact of introduced rodents on New Zealand’s ‘mammal-free’ invertebrate fauna

Since separating from its super-continental origin 80 million years ago, New Zealand has effectively been isolated from the impacts of terrestrial mammals. The arrival of Polynesians in 13th C heralded the end of this era, with the introduction of kiore, (Rattus exulans, or Pacific rat), which had far-reaching effects on plant regeneration, survival of small ground vertebrates, larger invertebrates, and seabird breeding colonies. This paper reviews the evidence available from raptor nest sites and Quaternary beetle fossils to summarise extinctions thought to be caused by kiore in New Zealand. It also utilises invertebrate comparisons between islands with and without rats, or where rats have been eradicated, in order to document the impacts of rats (R. exulans, R. norvegicus) on invertebrate abundance, body mass, and the behavioural responses of some large New Zealand insects to the presence of rats. The role of a ‘mammal-free’ evolutionary history is discussed.     

Mortality from asthma: a new epidemic in New Zealand

Trends in mortality attributed to asthma in the 5-34-year age group were examined in New Zealand, Australia, England and Wales, the United States, Canada, and West Germany for the years 1959-79. An epidemic of deaths from asthma occurred in the mid-1960s in New Zealand, Australia, and England and Wales but not in the other countries. In Australia and England and Wales the death rate quickly returned to pre-epidemic levels, but in New Zealand the decline in mortality was slow, and by 1974 the death rate was still almost double the pre-epidemic level. Of great concern was an abrupt increase in reported deaths from asthma in New Zealand after 1976 with the mortality rate during 1977-9 being greater than during the previous epidemic. In contrast, asthma mortality had remained relatively stable in the other populations.The new epidemic in New Zealand was investigated and appeared to be real. It could not be explained by changes in the classification of deaths from asthma, inaccuracies in death certification, or changes in diagnostic fashions. The most likely explanation appeared to be related to the management of asthma in New Zealand, and this is being investigated.     

The first record of a terrestrial landhopper (Crustacea: Amphipoda: Talitridae) from Macquarie Island

A terrestrial talitrid crustacean is recorded for the first time from subantarctic Macquarie Island. The species, Puhuruhuru patersoni, is native to the southern part of the South Island of New Zealand. Its distribution on Macquarie Is. is restricted to a single locality near the ANARE station on the Isthmus. All mature females collected in December were carrying eggs; females appeared to be less mobile than males. It seems likely that the species has been transported accidentally from New Zealand, perhaps by the same means that introduced the isopod, Styloniscus otakensis, also from southern New Zealand.     

Comparison of growth characteristics of New Zealand isolates of the prymnesiophytes Chrysochromulina quadrikonta and C.camella with those of the ichthyotoxic species C.polylepis

Chrysochromulina quadrikonta (Prymnesiophyceae), a quadriflagellatespecies previously unrecorded in New Zealand, was isolated fromNelson Harbour, New Zealand, in autumn 1991. It bears unmineralizedplate and spine scales, which morphologically are most likethose of Chrysochromulina ericina. Chrysochromulina quadrikonta,Chrysochromulina camella (isolated from the Marlborough Sounds,New Zealand) and Chrysochromulina polylepis (an ichthyotoxicspecies originally isolated from Scandinavia) grew most rapidly(growth rates, or divisions per day, of 1.41, 1.49 and 1.43,respectively) when cultured in a seawater-based general-purposenutrient medium at a salinity of 24% and pH 7.9, with only C.camellastill growing at 42% Chrysochromulina quadrikonta and C.camellagrew optimally at 25°C. and C.polylepis between 15 and 20°C;only C.polylepis grew at 10°C. Chrysochromulina quadrikontagrew optimally with potassium nitrate and ammonium chlorideas nitrogen source, whereas C.camella and C.polylepis grew equallywell with urea as nitrogen source. Only C.quadrikonta and C.polylepishad a selenium requirement. Unlike C.polylepis, neither of theNew Zealand isolates was phagotrophic nor ichthyotoxic.     

Molecular evidence for bicontinental hybridogenous genomic constitution in Lepidium sensu stricto (Brassicaceae) species from Australia and New Zealand

Lepidium sensu stricto (s.s.) (Brassicaceae) (ca. 150 species) is distributed worldwide with endemic species on every continent. It is represented in Australia and New Zealand by 19 and seven native species, respectively. In the present study we used a nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) phylogeny in comparison with a cpDNA phylogeny to unravel the origin of Australian/New Zealand species. Although phylogenetic relationships within Lepidium s.s. were not fully resolved, the cpDNA data were in agreement with a Californian origin of Lepidium species from Australia/New Zealand. Strongly conflicting signals between the cp- and nuclear DNA phylogenetic analysis clearly indicated hybridogenous genomic constitution of Australian Lepidium s.s. species: All 18 studied Australian/New Zealand Lepidium s.s. species examined shared a Californian cpDNA type. While eleven Australian/New Zealand species appeared to harbor a Californian ITS type, a group of seven species shared a South African ITS type. This pattern is most likely explained by two trans-oceanic dispersals of Lepidium from California and Africa to Australia/New Zealand and subsequent hybridization followed by homogenization of the ribosomal DNA either to the Californian or South African ITS type in the two different lineages. Calibration of our molecular trees indicates a Pliocene/Pleistocene origin of Lepidium in Australia/New Zealand. Low levels of cpDNA and ITS sequence divergence and unresolved topologies within Australian/New Zealand species suggest a rapid and recent radiation of Lepidium after the hybridization event. This coincides with dramatic climatic changes in that geological epoch shaping the composition of the vegetation.     

New records of Conidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda) from the New Zealand region

Abstract

Conus howelli Iredale is recorded from New Zealand. C. howelli and C. raoulensis Powell are considered to be very closely related, and Kermasprella Powell is thus probably a svnonvm of Endemoconus Iredale. C. teramachii (Kuroda) and C. smirna Bartsch ' Rehder are recorded from off northern New Zealand, and the known range of C. kermadecensis Iredale is extended southward.     

Phylogenetic analysis of feline immunodeficiency virus in feral and companion domestic cats of New Zealand

Nested PCR was used to amplify envelope V3-V6 gene fragments of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) from New Zealand cats. Phylogenetic analyses established that subtypes A and C predominate among New Zealand cats, with clear evidence of intersubtype recombination. In addition, 17 sequences were identified that were distinct from all known FIV clades, and we tentatively suggest these belong to a novel subtype.     

Do New Zealand invertebrates reflect the dominance of birds in their evolutionary history?

Pre-human New Zealand had some unusual feeding guilds of birds (e.g. the herbivorous moa fauna), thought to have developed as a result of the absence of a ?normal? mammal fauna. Insectivorous birds, on the other hand, are an integral part of all the world?s ecosystems, regardless of the presence or absence of mammals. While it is acknowledged the overall predation impact from birds in New Zealand is unlikely to have differed greatly from elsewhere, the low impact of mammalian insectivores (apart from microbats), coupled with the presence of a specialised avian feeding guild that concentrated on ground-active prey, might have exerted certain unique selection pressures. Do New Zealand invertebrates reflect this? It would be necessary to compare the New Zealand invertebrate fauna with that of mammal-dominated lands in greater detail than is available today before we could assert whether any unique anti-predator characteristics have evolved. Knowledge of the insects that succumbed to extinction when mammals invaded New Zealand should provide clues to avian-adapted features that might have rendered them particularly vulnerable to introduced rodents. Predation by kiwi (Apteryx spp.), an extraordinarily mammal-like nocturnal bird, may to some extent have prepared the invertebrate fauna for the arrival of small mammals.     

Community reassembly: a test using limestone grassland in New Zealand

To examine community reassembly, we sampled grasslands on calcareous soil (4%–24% CaCO₃) in New Zealand that were largely composed of species introduced from Britain. We tested whether the British species had reassembled on New Zealand limestone into the same communities as they form on limestone in Britain. The vegetation of six New Zealand sites was sampled, each with ten 2 × 2 m quadrats that followed the standard methodology of the British National Vegetation Classification (NVC). Analysing species presence and cover using program TableFit with the full database of British species, the New Zealand species assemblages gave poor to moderate fits (40%–72%) to the communities of the NVC, and even then not to calcareous grassland, though one site did fit to a calcareous spring community. The poor fits can be partly attributed to the absence from New Zealand of many British calcareous-specialist species. On omitting from the NVC database all species not present in New Zealand, the fits increased somewhat to 48%–77%. Using this modified database, two sites fitted British calcareous grassland communities. These two sites are on thinner soil (<10 cm depth), under lower rainfall. Where fits were obtained to calcareous communities, the environment of the community in Britain matched very well that of the New Zealand site. It is concluded that environmental and perhaps biotic filtering has been strong enough in some sites to assort alien species into the same species assemblages as they form in their native range, indicating the Deterministic model of community structure. However, the absence of some species has prevented full reassembly.