Citizenship and Resource Competition in Nigeria

This article discusses the growing tension between constitutionally defined citizenship and socially accepted practices of “we–they dichotomies” as a turbulent component of the national question discourse in Nigeria. It examines the adoption of dual citizenship across the country as well as how this generates violent ethnic conflict. Importantly, while citizenship refers to one’s full membership of a sovereign political community acquired either by birth, naturalisation or any other process legitimised and recognised by the supreme law of the state, indigeneship, on the other hand, is a discriminatory policy employed by local or provincial governments for protecting the rights of their so–called indigenous populations to employment, political power and other resources of the regions or states against domination by alien populations and outsiders. It is argued that while such distinctions have been made possible inter alia by Nigeria’s multi–ethnic character, the ensuing struggles and tensions have been driven by the normless competition over resource allocation. These have especially been the case in instances where ethno–territorial cleavages have been the primary beneficiaries and targets of such resource allocation. This article discusses land as a major economic resource over which heated ethnic conflicts have taken place in Nigeria. Drawing on the conflicts between Hausa–Fulani pastoralists and Yoruba farmers in South–Western Nigeria, it examines the question of how disputed access to land and water has underlain an almost permanent basis of conflict in Nigeria as well as their implications for the country’s fledgling democracy. How does the struggle over land affect the articulation of the citizenship question in Nigeria? How have scarcity and competition over resources affected the contest over citizenship and the forging of nationhood among natives and settlers in South–Western Nigeria? How have colonial framings of socially accepted practices of indigeneship entrenched an understanding of the state in Nigeria as a representation of permanently defined subnational conceptions of ethnic citizenship? What role can the state in Nigeria play towards transforming the multiplicities of traditional societies into coherent political societies as a basis for (i) eliciting deference and devotion from the individual to the claims of the state, and ultimately for (ii) increasing cultural homogeneity, political integration and value consensus? Drawing on data generated from an ethnographic study carried out in South–Western Nigeria between October 2009 and March 2015, this study interrogates these questions.     

Breeding for Short-stemmed Oil Palm in Nigeria: Fatty Acids, their Significance and Characteristics

The fatty acids of the progenies arising from the first back-crossfrom Elaeis guineensis and Elaeis oleifera interspecific hybridsto E. guineensis have been characterized. Fatty-acid patternsshowed striking variability which indicated that factors governingfatty-acid inheritance are polygenic. Although segregation forindividual fatty acids had no relationship with the large numberof morphological characters observed, a definite upward trendin the percentage of unsaturated fatty acids was clearly showncompared to the parent palms. The commercial and domestic advantagesof unsaturated fatty acids are discussed. Elaeis guineensis, oil palm, breeding, fatty acid content     

Study of Heavy Metal Distribution in Soils Impacted with Crude Oil in Southern Nigeria

The study presents the levels and enrichment factors of heavy metals in soils of southern Nigeria that have received significant impact of crude oil spillage. The results revealed that the concentrations of heavy metals in the examined soils fitted into levels found in agricultural soils except for cadmium. Heavily impacted sites showed elevated levels of heavy metals compared to less impacted sites and background levels. The mean enrichment factors for Cd, Cu, Cr, Pb, Mn, Ni, and Zn were 37.3, 2.8, 14.4, 14.0, 0.77, 5.4, and 1.27 for topsoil and 37.5, 1.30, 7.81, 1.59, 4.12, and 1.28 for subsoil, respectively. This clearly indicates that there is gradual build-up of heavy metals in these soils as a result of the oil spillage and related anthropogenic activities in this area.     

Sperm Storage in the Yellow Dung Fly Scathophaga stercoraria: Identifying the Sperm of Competing Males in Separate Female Spermathecae

We examined the effects of male and female behaviour and morphology on the process of sperm storage in the yellow dung fly Scathophaga (Scatophaga) stercoraria. The larger of two males was more successful in transferring sperm to females' spermathecae the greater the difference in weight to his smaller competitor, as expected from previous studies by other authors. Sperm length, which is not correlated to body size, affected sperm access to the spermathecae, the female storage organs; longer sperm were more likely to be found in the spermathecae. A female typically had a singlet spermatheca and two spermathecae arranged as a pair, a doublet. However, there was variation from this pattern, which influenced the pattern of sperm storage. We measured the proportion of sperm from two competing males in females' singlet and doublet spermathecae. When the larger male's sperm were longer than his competitor's, they were more often in a female's singlet when he was her first mate and equally likely to be in the singlet or doublet when he was her second mate. When the larger male's sperm were shorter than his competitor's, the pattern was more complicated, principally because his sperm were not as successful at entering the female's doublet when he was her second mate. Counts of sperm, made using the same experimental procedure, showed that these effects were due to greater numbers of sperm entering the females' doublets when the larger male mated second. Sperm length was thus the factor with the largest single influence on the pattern of sperm storage. However, our most important result is that it was the interactions between male and female characters that were significant. Males mostly determine the early, especially precopulatory, events and females strongly influence the later ones.     

Trace Metal Contents of Selected Seeds and Vegetables from Oil Producing Areas of Nigeria

The concentrations of accumulated trace metals in selected seeds and vegetables collected in the oil producing Rivers State of Nigeria were investigated. The values were compared with those of seeds and vegetables cultivated in Owerri, a less industrialized area in Nigeria. The lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) contents of the seeds obtained from Rivers State ranged between 0.10 and 0.23 μg/g dry weight, while those of the seeds cultivated in Owerri fell below the detection limit of 0.01 μg/g dry weight. The highest manganese (Mn) level (902 μg/g dry weight) was found in Irvingia garbonesis seeds cultivated in Rivers State. Similarly, the highest nickel (Ni) value (199 μg/g dry weight) was also obtained in I. garbonesis, however, in the seeds sampled in Owerri. The highest copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and iron (Fe) levels (16.8, 5.27, and 26.2 μg/g dry weight, resp.) were detected in seeds collected in Rivers State. With the exception of Talinum triangulae, Ocinum gratissimum, and Piper guineese, with Pb levels of 0.09, 0.10, and 0.11 μg/g dry weight, respectively, the Pb and Cd levels in the vegetables grown in Owerri fell below the detection limit of 0.01 μg/g dry weight. The trace metal with the highest levels in all the vegetables studied was Mn, followed by Fe. The highest concentrations of Ni and Cu occurred in vegetables collected from Rivers State, while the highest level of Zn was observed in Piper guineese collected in Owerri, with a value of 21.4 μg/g dry weight. Although the trace metal concentrations of the seeds and vegetables collected in Rivers State tended to be higher than those of the seeds and vegetables grown in Owerri, the average levels of trace metals obtained in this study fell far below the WHO specifications for metals in foods.     

Home Range Size Variation in Female Arctic Grizzly Bears Relative to Reproductive Status and Resource Availability

The area traversed in pursuit of resources defines the size of an animal’s home range. For females, the home range is presumed to be a function of forage availability. However, the presence of offspring may also influence home range size due to reduced mobility, increased nutritional need, and behavioral adaptations of mothers to increase offspring survival. Here, we examine the relationship between resource use and variation in home range size for female barren-ground grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) of the Mackenzie Delta region in Arctic Canada. We develop methods to test hypotheses of home range size that address selection of cover where cover heterogeneity is low, using generalized linear mixed-effects models and an information-theoretic approach. We found that the reproductive status of female grizzlies affected home range size but individually-based spatial availability of highly selected cover in spring and early summer was a stronger correlate. If these preferred covers in spring and early summer, a period of low resource availability for grizzly bears following den-emergence, were patchy and highly dispersed, females travelled farther regardless of the presence or absence of offspring. Increased movement to preferred covers, however, may result in greater risk to the individual or family.     

The Effect of Post Inoculation Treatment with Mineral Oil on TMV Multiplication in Tobacco Leaves and Protoplasts

Half leaves of N. tabacum dipped into a 0.2 % emulsion of meneral oil 15min after inoculation with tabacco masaic virus (TMV) developed significantly fewer lesion than when not dipped Dipping reduced lesion numbers when applied up to 2½ h after inoculation and multiple dippings were more effective than one. The effect of oil was the same whether the inoculum was whole virus or RNA. Tobacco protoplasts treated with mineral oil contained less virus than untreated protoplasts. The oil probably acted by killing the protoplasts and was effective only when protoplasts were centrifuged through the oil emulsion, When water-treated leaves were dipped into a TMV solution there was an effect on TMV infection similar to that caused by dipping in oil after TMV inoculation.     

Exposure Elements in Oil Spill Risk and Natural Resource Damage Assessments: A Review

The use of the ecological risk assessment (ERA) framework for assessing effects of oil spills is applicable to the injury assessment component of natural resource damage assessment (NRDA). Central to the ERA process is the assessment of exposure, the critical component linking the release of oil to the assessment of effects. Exposure of biological receptors to the toxic fractions of spilled oil, usually considered the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), requires carefully designed and implemented assessment studies, which are periodically refocused on various environmental pathways and the various biological receptors of concern over the life history of an oil spill from initial release to recovery. As important is the detailed assessment of the exposure regime in the absence of a spill (i.e., the baseline or background exposure). A release of petroleum may not, in itself, equate to an effect on a natural resource. The presence of residual petroleum hydrocarbons does not imply either availability to living organisms or injury to a biological resource. Precise and accurate chemical concentration and compositional data for 2–6 ringed PAHs and alkylated homologues are the key toxicologically important chemical components that are central to the exposure assessment. These principles are illustrated in several oil spill case studies.     

Morphological Comparison of Meloidogyne Female Head Structures,Perineal Patterns,and Stylets

The external morphology of female heads of three populations of each of two cytological races of Meloidogyne hapla (race A-meiotic, race B-mitotic) and single populations of M. arenaria, M. incognita, and M. javanica was compared by light (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Perineal patterns of all nine populations were observed with a LM and then examined with a SEM. In addition, female stylets of each population were excised, viewed with a SEM, and compared with observations made with a LM. Head morphology of the females, including shape of medial and lateral lips, expression of sensilla, and head annulation, was distinct for each species, each race of M. hapla, and each population of M. hapla race A. The morphology of a given perineal pattern appeared similar with the SEM and the LM. The SEM emphasized surface details, whereas the LM revealed subcuticular structure as well. Stylet morphology was unique for each species but similar in all populations of M. hapla. There were differences between species in the shape of the cone, shaft, and knobs and in the distance of the dorsal esophageal gland orifice from the stylet knob base. Several of the morphological characters first detected in the SEM were seen subsequently with the LM and are helpful in species identification.     

沙棘雌雄株叶片解剖结构比较研究

为了研究沙棘雌、雄株叶片的第二性征,本文采用石蜡切片法观察了沙棘雌、雄株叶片结构的差异。结果表明：（1）沙棘雌、雄株叶片均由表皮、叶肉和叶脉3部分组成,表皮均由1层细胞构成,表皮毛发达,上表皮有拟泡状细胞;叶肉栅栏组织与海绵组织分化明显。（2）雌株上表皮具更多的拟泡状细胞,其主脉韧皮部薄壁细胞及其下方的一些薄壁细胞含较多的后含物,下表皮的表皮毛更浓密;而雄株的叶片厚度、叶片上表皮厚度、栅栏组织厚度、栅栏组织厚度/海绵组织厚度均显著大于雌株,且其主脉维管束更发达。结果表明,沙棘雌雄株叶片解剖结构存在明显差异,这些差异是第二性征的表现,也是沙棘长期进化中形成的稳健的适应策略,可能有利于该物种的繁衍。     

Oil,Gas and Conflict: A Mathematical Model for the Resource Curse

Oil and natural gas are highly valuable natural resources, but many countries with large untapped reserves suffer from poor economic and social-welfare performance. This conundrum is known as the resource curse. The resource curse is a result of poor governance and wealth distribution structures that allow the elite to monopolize resources for self-gain. When rival social groups compete for natural resources, civil unrest soon follows. While conceptually easy to follow, there have been few formal attempts to study this phenomenon. Thus, we develop a mathematical model that captures the basic elements and dynamics of this dilemma. We show that when resources are monopolized by the elite, increased exportation leads to decreased domestic production. This is due to under-provision of the resource-embedded energy and industrial infrastructure. Decreased domestic production then lowers the marginal return on productive activities, and insurgency emerges. The resultant conflict further displaces human, built, and natural capital. It forces the economy into a vicious downward spiral. Our numerical results highlight the importance of governance reform and productivity growth in reducing oil-and-gas-related conflicts, and thus identify potential points of intervention to break the downward spiral.     

Scale Dependence of Female Ungulate Reproductive Success in Relation to Nutritional Condition,Resource Selection and Multi-Predator Avoidance

Female ungulate reproductive success is dependent on the survival of their young, and affected by maternal resource selection, predator avoidance, and nutritional condition. However, potential hierarchical effects of these factors on reproductive success are largely unknown, especially in multi-predator landscapes. We expanded on previous research of neonatal white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) daily survival within home ranges to assess if resource use, integrated risk of 4 mammalian predators, maternal nutrition, winter severity, hiding cover, or interactions among these variables best explained landscape scale variation in daily or seasonal survival during the post-partum period. We hypothesized that reproductive success would be limited greater by predation risk at coarser spatiotemporal scales, but habitat use at finer scales. An additive model of daily non-ideal resource use and maternal nutrition explained the most (69%) variation in survival; though 65% of this variation was related to maternal nutrition. Strong support of maternal nutrition across spatiotemporal scales did not fully support our hypothesis, but suggested reproductive success was related to dam behaviors directed at increasing nutritional condition. These behaviors were especially important following severe winters, when dams produced smaller fawns with less probability of survival. To increase nutritional condition and decrease wolf (Canis lupus) predation risk, dams appeared to place fawns in isolated deciduous forest patches near roads. However, this resource selection represented non-ideal resources for fawns, which had greater predation risk that led to additive mortalities beyond those related to resources alone. Although the reproductive strategy of dams resulted in greater predation of fawns from alternative predators, it likely improved the life-long reproductive success of dams, as many were late-aged (>10 years old) and could have produced multiple litters of fawns. Our study emphasizes understanding the scale-dependent hierarchy of factors limiting reproductive success is essential to providing reliable knowledge for ungulate management.     

Ethnicity and fertility in Nigeria

Using a sample of Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, Ibo, and all other women from the 1990 Nigerian Demographic and Health Survey, this study examines ethnic fertility differentials in Nigeria within the context of the social characteristics and cultural hypotheses. Among all women, we find the net fertility of Hausa-Fulani women to be lower than that of Other women; with no statistically significant difference in the net fertility of Ibo, Yourba, and Other women. But, among currently married women, we find the net fertility of Hausa-Fulani and Yoruba women to be lower than that of Other women, while the net fertility of Ibo women is higher than that of Other women. Overall, the findings of this study are more consistent with the cultural hypothesis, because statistically significant fertility differentials by ethnicity remain, even after controlling for selected socioeconomic and demographic variables.