Endocytosis in plants

Endocytosis in animal cells has been heavily documented. Both fluid-phase and receptor-mediated modes of uptake have been frequently studied, and the endocytic pathway is well defined. This contrasts markedly with the situation in plants where our knowledge of this process is still rudimentary. Partly responsible for this situation has been the view, widely held among plant physiologists, that because of turgor, endocytosis cannot occur in plant cells. As discussed below, the case against endocytosis is no longer water-tight.
Endocytosis is a fact in protoplasts. It can be demonstrated with electron-dense tracers as well as with membrane impermeant dye Lucifer Yellow CH. The latter has also been used with success on both suspension-cultured and tissue cells of higher plants, suggesting that fluid-phase endocytosis is also a feature of cells with walls. Through the application of fluorescently labelled elicitor molecules, which specifically bind to the cell surface of suspension-cultured cells, it has also been possible to provide convincing evidence for the operation of receptor-mediated endocytosis in plants. A number of studies on protoplasts and cells clearly indicate that endocytosis in plants can be mediated by coated pits in the plasma membrane. At least one of the organelles that lie on the endocytic pathway in plants has a structurally similar counterpart in animal cells: the multivesicular body. The first recipient of internalized molecules is the partially coated reticulum, although its relationship to the Golgi apparatus and Golgi function remain to be clarified. The final target for endocytosis in plants appears to be the vacuole.     

Calcium in plants

Calcium is an essential plant nutrient. It is required for various structural roles in the cell wall and membranes, it is a counter-cation for inorganic and organic anions in the vacuole, and the cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) is an obligate intracellular messenger coordinating responses to numerous developmental cues and environmental challenges. This article provides an overview of the nutritional requirements of different plants for Ca, and how this impacts on natural flora and the Ca content of crops. It also reviews recent work on (a) the mechanisms of Ca2+ transport across cellular membranes, (b) understanding the origins and specificity of [Ca2+]cyt signals and (c) characterizing the cellular [Ca2+]cyt-sensors (such as calmodulin, calcineurin B-like proteins and calcium-dependent protein kinases) that allow plant cells to respond appropriately to [Ca2+]cyt signals.     

Chromium in plants

Chromium is an essential trace element and is associated with some biological pathways, especially with glucose tolerance. For these reasons, we decided to determine the concentration of chromium in two sets of Brazilian medicinal plants. The first group consisted of plants that are considered as antidiabetic, whereas the second included plants that do not have this therapeutic property. The concentration of chromium was determined by flameless atomic absorption. All the plants analyzed contain chromium in the normal range for this element, but the hypoglycemic plants contain more chromium than the others (1–4 μg/g compared to 0.5–1.5 μg/g).     

Boron mobility in plants

Boron (B) is a micronutrient essential for the normal growth of monocots, dicots. conifers, ferns and several diatom species. Boron deficiency causes many anatomical, physiological and biochemical changes, making it difficult to identify a primary role for it: however, evidence does indicate that B is involved at the membrane level. Whatever the role(s). it likely involves the complexation of B with compounds containing cis -hydroxyl groups. Boron deficiency in crops is more widespread than deficiency of any other micronutrient. Nutritional disorders in vegetables include brown heart in rutabaga, turnip and radish roots, and hollow stem in cauliflower and broccoli. The occurrence of these disorders even when B is in ample supply suggests that they are physiological in nature and related to the mobility of B in the plant. The distribution of B is related to the loss of water from shoot organs, suggesting that it is primarily xylem-mobile with limited retranslocation in phloem. However, research has shown that B is present in the phloem, albeit at low concentration, and that it is generally retranslocated in the phloem to satisfy the demands of sink organs that do not readily transpire. Further progress into the mechanism(s) of B retranslocation will be facilitated by insights into the role and metabolism of B in plants.     

Rhizosphere communication of plants, parasitic plants and AM fungi

Plants use an array of secondary metabolites to defend themselves against harmful organisms and to attract others that are beneficial. However, the attraction of beneficial organisms could also lead to abuse by malevolent organisms. An exciting example of such abuse is the relationship between plants, beneficial mutualistic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and harmful parasitic plants. Signalling molecules called strigolactones, which are secreted by plant roots in low concentrations, induce the growth of both obligate biotrophs. Here, we review the importance of strigolactones for these two interactions and discuss possible developments that should further clarify the role of these signalling molecules in rhizosphere processes.     

植物的亲缘选择

亲缘选择是指在一个随机交配群体中的个体基于亲缘关系而以一种非随机性的方式相互作用,其作用结果是亲缘个体得到更大的广义适合度。综述了亲缘选择和亲缘竞争两种观点以及各自的试验支持证据;分析了导致亲缘选择试验结果出现分歧的原因,认为这主要是由于对亲缘选择理解上的模糊以及试验设计的不严谨所致。植物间的亲缘选择研究不仅相对较少,对亲缘选择的机制研究更为欠缺,这就造成了目前对此问题在科学认识上出现不少盲点。综合前期研究,提出今后对亲缘选择的研究应该首先界定"亲缘"程度,同时改良试验设计方案,选择多种不同生境下的物种对亲缘选择进行深入研究,并且考虑环境因子对植物亲缘选择的影响。同时,对植物亲缘识别机制的研究应该从生理生化方面出发,通过定性定量地分析探索植物根系分泌物在植物亲缘识别中的作用和作用途径。     

Magnetoreception in plants

This article reviews phenomena of magnetoreception in plants and provides a survey of the relevant literature over the past 80 years. Plants react in a multitude of ways to geomagnetic fields—strong continuous fields as well as alternating magnetic fields. In the past, physiological investigations were pursued in a somewhat unsystematic manner and no biological advantage of any magnetoresponse is immediately obvious. As a result, most studies remain largely on a phenomenological level and are in general characterised by a lack of mechanistic insight, despite the fact that physics provides several theories that serve as paradigms for magnetoreception. Beside ferrimagnetism, which is well proved for bacterial magnetotaxis and for some cases of animal navigation, two further mechanisms for magnetoreception are currently receiving major attention: (1) the radical-pair mechanism consisting of the modulation of singlet–triplet interconversion rates of a radical pair by weak magnetic fields, and (2) the ion cyclotron resonance mechanism. The latter mechanism centres around the fact that ions should circulate in a plane perpendicular to an external magnetic field with their Lamor frequencies, which can interfere with an alternating electromagnetic field. Both mechanisms provide a theoretical framework for future model-guided investigations in the realm of plant magnetoreception.     

Autoluminescent plants

Prospects of obtaining plants glowing in the dark have captivated the imagination of scientists and layman alike. While light emission has been developed into a useful marker of gene expression, bioluminescence in plants remained dependent on externally supplied substrate. Evolutionary conservation of the prokaryotic gene expression machinery enabled expression of the six genes of the lux operon in chloroplasts yielding plants that are capable of autonomous light emission. This work demonstrates that complex metabolic pathways of prokaryotes can be reconstructed and function in plant chloroplasts and that transplastomic plants can emit light that is visible by naked eye.     

Cyanogenesis in plants

Several thousand plant species, including many economically important food plants, synthesize cyanogenic glycosides and cyanolipids. Upon tissue disruption, these natural products are hydrolyzed liberating the respiratory poison hydrogen cyanide. This phenomenon of cyanogenesis accounts for numerous cases of acute and chronic cyanide poisoning of animals including man. This article reviews information gathered during the past decade about the enzymology and molecular biology of cyanogenesis in higher plants. How compartmentation normally prevents the large-scale, suicidal release of HCN within the intact plant is discussed. A renewed interest in the physiology of these cyanogenic compounds has revealed that, in addition to providing protection for some species against herbivory, they may also serve as storage forms for reduced nitrogen.     

How plants make tubes

The plant body requires the transport of various materials over large distances. Two cell types that bear a striking resemblance morphologically are the cells specialized for water transport and those responsible for the transport of oxygen: xylem and lysigenous aerenchyma, respectively. Each of these cell types undergoes programmed cell death and cellular autolysis, resulting in the production of a functional space within the plant body. The major morphological difference observed is the presence of the lignified secondary wall in water-conducting tissues. The prevalence of tubular structures in other plant tissues suggests that the ability to form spaces through cellular autolysis is a fundamental paradigm in plant development and evolution.     

Marker-free transgenic plants

Selectable marker genes are widely used for the efficient transformation of crop plants. In most cases, selection is based on antibiotic or herbicide resistance. Due mainly to consumer concerns, a suite of strategies (site-specific recombination, homologous recombination, transposition and co-transformation) have been developed to eliminate the marker gene from the nuclear or chloroplast genome after selection. Current efforts concentrate on systems where marker genes are eliminated efficiently soon after transformation. Alternatively, transgenic plants are produced by the use of marker genes that do not rely on antibiotic or herbicide resistance but instead promote regeneration after transformation. Here, the merits and shortcomings of different approaches and possible directions for their future development are discussed.     

土壤pH调控固氮植物和非固氮植物间的氮转移

氮作为构成蛋白质的主要成分, 是植物生长的必要营养物质。陆地生态系统普遍存在土壤氮缺乏的现象, 混交种植模式中固氮植物可以将生物固定的氮转移给非固氮植物, 是满足非固氮植物氮需求的途径之一。明确固氮和非固氮植物间氮转移的影响因素有助于恢复退化生态系统, 构建稳定群落, 增加生态系统生产力。为了量化环境及生物等因素对氮转移的影响, 该研究采用文献调研法, 对118组氮转移比例(氮转移量占非固氮植物氮含量的比值, P_transfer)文献和实验数据(包括21种固氮植物和23种非固氮植物)进行了线性混合模型分析。结果表明土壤pH是影响P_transfer变化的最主要因素(解释量为44.04%), 其次为年平均温度(解释量为9.14%)以及固氮与非固氮植物生物量比值(解释量为2.95%), 而作为随机因素的固氮和非固氮植物物种差异的解释量为16.52%。此外, 碱性土壤中P_transferr显著高于酸性土壤。在酸性土壤中, 年平均温度(解释量为12.49%)和土壤总氮含量(解释量为11.72%)是影响P_transfer差异的主要因素, P_transfer随着年平均温度和土壤总氮含量的增加而显著增加。而在碱性土壤中, P_transfer差异主要受到固氮与非固氮植物生物量比值(解释量为13.29%)、年降水量(解释量为10.73%)和土壤总氮含量(解释量为9.33%)的调控。相对于酸性土壤, 碱性土壤能够显著增加固氮与非固氮植物生物量比值进而增加P_transfer。同时, 在碱性土壤中P_transfer与年降水量和土壤总氮含量呈显著正相关关系。这些结果对提高固氮和非固氮植物间的氮转移, 有效缓解土壤氮对非固氮植物生长的限制以及构建稳定群落具有重要意义。     

MRI of intact plants

Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-destructive and non-invasive technique that can be used to acquire two- or even three-dimensional images of intact plants. The information within the images can be manipulated and used to study the dynamics of plant water relations and water transport in the stem, e.g., as a function of environmental (stress) conditions. Non-spatially resolved portable NMR is becoming available to study leaf water content and distribution of water in different (sub-cellular) compartments. These parameters directly relate to stomatal water conductance, CO₂ uptake, and photosynthesis. MRI applied on plants is not a straight forward extension of the methods discussed for (bio)medical MRI. This educational review explains the basic physical principles of plant MRI, with a focus on the spatial resolution, factors that determine the spatial resolution, and its unique information for applications in plant water relations that directly relate to plant photosynthetic activity.     

toxin-mediated insect resistance in plants

We are currently in an interesting phase of plant biotechnology releases, both for the scientists responsible for these innovations who are beginning to see their ideas realized, and for the biotechnology companies that are starting to see a return on their investment. One of the most notable examples, is the introduction of transgenic crops that are engineered to express a Bacillus thuringiensis toxin that confers resistance to insect predation. However, the picture is not altogether positive - there is concern that the introduction of this technology was premature or should not have happened at all, and that the valuable insecticidal properties of Bacillus thuringiensis will be lost.     

Cushion plants as islands

Summary The acarine fauna of two abundant species of cushion plant on the high, short-grass prairie of S.E. Wyoming were used to test The MacArthur-Wilson Theory of Island Biogeography. Multiple regression analysis using area, distance and percent moisture as independent variables and number of mite species and number of mite individuals were run for the two sampling dates. Results showed area alone to be consistently and highly correlated (r=0.84–0.94) with both species and individuals for one cushion species. The slopes of the species-area and individuals-area curves are among the highest recorded and were significantly higher on the second sampling date. Selective seasonal changes in the fauna were shown by increases both in numbers of species and individuals, mainly on larger cushions, for the later sampling period. It is hypothesized that seasonal changes are due to an increase in the number of predator species in response to an increase in the number of prey items. The slopes of the species-area curves are compared with those in the literature and it is argued that slope values are more dependent upon the taxonomic group being studied than on whether the island is insular or oceanic. Finally, we suggest that The MacArthur-Wilson Theory is not applicable to islands which 1) exhibit continuous growth, 2) lack a discrete species source, and 3) are relatively transitory.     

Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors from plants

Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), the key enzyme in the breakdown of acetylcholine, is considered as a promising strategy for the treatment of neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, senile dementia, ataxia and myasthenia gravis. A potential source of AChE inhibitors is certainly provided by the abundance of plants in nature. This article aims to provide a comprehensive literature survey of plants that have been tested for AChE inhibitory activity. Numerous phytoconstituents and promising plant species as AChE inhibitors are being reported in this communication.     

High-value oils from plants

The seed oils of domesticated oilseed crops are major agricultural commodities that are used primarily for nutritional applications, but in recent years there has been increasing use of these oils for production of biofuels and chemical feedstocks. This is being driven in part by the rapidly rising costs of petroleum, increased concern about the environmental impact of using fossil oil, and the need to develop renewable domestic sources of fuel and industrial raw materials. There is also a need to develop sustainable sources of nutritionally important fatty acids such as those that are typically derived from fish oil. Plant oils can provide renewable sources of high-value fatty acids for both the chemical and health-related industries. The value and application of an oil are determined largely by its fatty acid composition, and while most vegetable oils contain just five basic fatty acid structures, there is a rich diversity of fatty acids present in nature, many of which have potential usage in industry. In this review, we describe several areas where plant oils can have a significant impact on the emerging bioeconomy and the types of fatty acids that are required in these various applications. We also outline the current understanding of the underlying biochemical and molecular mechanisms of seed oil production, and the challenges and potential in translating this knowledge into the rational design and engineering of crop plants to produce high-value oils in plant seeds.     

Pathogens and sex in plants

Summary Extant theories that attribute the evolution of sex to pathogen attack depend on the assumption that pathogens are narrowly specialized, so that high fitness on one host genotype results in poor fitness on hosts with other allele combinations. This assumption is necessary in order for frequency-dependent selection to produce sustained cycling of gametic disequilibrium across the host's disease resistance loci, which makes recombination advantageous. However, a review of numerous genetic studies on plant disease resistance failed to uncover a single example consistent with this assumption. Instead, the empirical results provide strong support for a different pattern of pathogen specificity, in which adaptation by pathogens to one resistance allele does not preclude high fitness on alternate host genotypes lacking that allele. Modification of traditional models for pathogen-mediated evolution of sex showed that for conditions close to the empirical pattern of genotypic specificity, sex is almost never favoured. For plants, these results cast doubt on current theories arguing that pathogens are the primary selective agent responsible for sexual reproduction.     

Evolutionary senescence in plants

Senescence is a decline in age-specific survival and reproduction with advancing age. Studies of evolutionary plant senescence are designed to explain this decline in life history components within the context of natural selection. A review of studies of plant demography reveals senescent declines in both annual and perennial plants, but also suggests that there are some plant species which may not be expected to show senescence. Thus, future comparative studies of closely related species, with and without senescence, should be possible. The assumptions of the major evolutionary theories of senescence are evaluated for their validity with respect to plants. Different plant species violate one or more of the assumptions of the theories, yet the consequences of violating these assumptions have never been investigated. Whereas, to date, evolutionary senescence has been studied only indirectly in plants, it is concluded that plants provide good experimental systems for clarifying our understanding of senescence in natural populations.