Dorid nudibranchs from eastern Australia (Gastropoda, Opisthobranchia)

Collections of nudibranch gastropods made in 1968 are described. All the 18 eastern Australian species of doridaceans (excluding chromodoridiform species) obtained are illustra-ed and investigated anatomically, often for the first time since their original discovery over a century ago. A list of the dorid nudibranches reliably recorded from Australian waters (compiled by R. Burn) supplements the paper.     

Chromodorid nudibranchs from eastern Australia (Gastropoda, Opisthobranchia)*

Collections of nudibranch gastropods made in 1968 and 1969 are described. All the 11 eastern Australian species of Casella, Hypselodoris and Chromodoris obtained are fully illustrated by line diagrams, photographs and water-colours. Two species new for Australia are described, and nine others are re-described. A list of the chromodoridiform species reliably recorded from Australian waters concludes the paper.     

The marine permian faunas of Westcrn Australia

The marine Permian faunus (about 350 species) of Western Australia are briefly reviewed and compared with Tethyan, eastern Australian and Gondwana faunas. The Western Australian faunal province has close affinities with the eastern Tethys (Salt Range, Timor) and is rather dissimilar to the eastern Australian province, although some Western Australian elements migrated into the northern (Queensland) and the southern (Tasmania) regions of the eastern province.     

Botryocladius gen.n.: a new transantarctic genus of orthocladiine midge (Diptera: Chironomidae)

A new genus of orthocladiine Chironomidae, Botryocladius (type species B. grapeth sp.n. from eastern Australia) is described and illustrated in all life history stages. All thirteen included species are described as new, six from eastern Australia (B. grapeth, B. brindabella, B. mdfrc, B. collessi, B. tasmania, B. australoalpinus), two from Western Australia (B. bibulmun and B. freemani), one from ephemeral streams in Australia (B. petrophilus) and four from Patagonian Argentina and Chile (B. edwardsi, B. glacialis, B. mapuche and B. tronador). All Australian species are known from at least pupal exuviae, most from adult males and several from larvae. In contrast, only B. edwardsi amongst Neotropical species is known from the adult male; all others are described from pupal exuviae. The immature stages are lotic in Australian permanent and temporary streams and Patagonian glacial streams and rivers, and lentic in Neotropical glacial-fed and Australian subalpine lakes. Botryocladius appears to belong with a grouping centred on two formally undescribed taxa from Australia. The genus evidently demonstrates a vicariant distribution with at least two sister-group relationships between South American and Australian taxa, providing a minimum dating for the clade of 38 Ma., with apparent absence from New Zealand indicating a maximum date of 80 Ma.     

Evolutionary systematics of the Australian Eocyzicus fauna (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Spinicaudata) reveals hidden diversity and phylogeographic structure

Although ‘large branchiopods’ are an important faunal element of the temporary water bodies in Australia's vast (semi)arid regions, knowledge of their diversity, distribution and ecology is still poor. Here, on the basis of one mitochondrial [cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI)] and three nuclear (EF1α, ITS2 and 28S) markers, we present new data relating to the diversity and phylogeography of eastern and central Australian Eocyzicus (Spinicaudata) fauna. Using a combination of phylogenetic, haplotype network and DNA barcoding analyses of COI, 312 individuals were grouped into eleven main lineages. To infer whether these lineages are reproductively isolated from each other (the prerequisite for species delineation according to the Biological or Hennigian Species Concepts), separate analyses of each nuclear marker were performed on a subset of specimens. Although some lineages are non‐monophyletic in the analysis of one nuclear marker, this is mostly attributed to processes such as incomplete lineage sorting rather than ongoing reproduction. The eleven lineages translate into at least seven species whose reproductive isolation is additionally indicated by sympatry, including both Australian Eocyzicus species previously described. Another three lineages may constitute further species, but their clear allopatric distribution rendered the test for reproductive isolation inapplicable. One lineage appears not to be reproductively isolated and is therefore considered a genetically distinct lineage within one of the other species, and one divergent lineage within E. argillaquus may constitute an additional species. Although sympatry is very common – six species occur in the central Paroo River catchment in eastern Australia, for instance – syntopic occurrence is rare. It is possible that a combination of differing habitat preferences and priority effects inhibits the presence of more than one Eocyzicus species per water body. There is little to no genetic differentiation between certain populations of the species found in eastern and central Australia (e.g. the Murray–Darling Basin, the Bulloo River catchment and the eastern and northern Lake Eyre Basin; LEB), suggesting high dispersal rates within this large area. Between the central Australian populations themselves, however (e.g. those inhabiting the central and western LEB), genetic differentiation is pronounced, probably as a result of the lack of abundance of important dispersal vectors (aquatic birds) and the lower diversity and density of suitable habitats in the area. The most prominent biogeographical break exists towards north‐eastern Australia (north‐east LEB), which does not share species with any other region studied.     

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES BELONGING TO THE FAMILY PHYLLIDIIDAE (NUDIBRANCHIA: DORIDOIDEA)

A new genus of phyllidiid nudibranch, Reticulidia, is described.Distinguishing features are the reticulate pattern of smoothridges on the dorsum and the radially arranged, glandular discswhich make up the pharyngeal bulb. Additional features of theforegut are described and compared with other genera. The importanceof the alimentary system for the separation of genera withinthe Phyllidiidae is supported and its validity reinforced bythis new genus. One species, Reticulidia halgerda, is describedas new and differentiated from a second, sympatric species.Reticulidia is presently known from the eastern Indian Ocean,South China Sea and western Pacific Ocean. ^*Present address: Australian Biological and Environmental Survey,Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. GPO Box 1383,Canberra. ACT 2601. Australia. (Received 15 August 1989; accepted 8 January 1990)     

Current status of the Drosophila melanogaster species-group (Diptera)

Abstract. The Drosphila melanogaster species-group, established by Sturtevant (1942) for fourteen species, is now known to contain 115 described species here divided into twelve named subgroups (including one newly proposed), as well as further undescribed species. Three of the species, melanogaster, simulans and ananassae , are cosmopolitan; two others, kikkawai and malerkotliana , are widespread in the southern hemisphere, the latter apparently a recent introduction to South America. The greatest numbers of species otherwise occur in the Oriental region with smaller numbers in the Ethiopian, eastern Palaearctic and Australian regions and in several islands of the South Pacific. D.rajasekari and D.raychaudhurii are synonymized with D.biamipes;also D.andamanensis Parshad & Singh is synonymized with D.andamanensis Gupta & Raychaudhuri.     

Distribution and phylogenetic relationships of Australian glow-worms Arachnocampa (Diptera, Keroplatidae)

Glow-worms are bioluminescent fly larvae (Order Diptera, genus Arachnocampa) found only in Australia and New Zealand. Their core habitat is rainforest gullies and wet caves. Eight species are present in Australia; five of them have been recently described. The geographic distribution of species in Australia encompasses the montane regions of the eastern Australian coastline from the Wet Tropics region of northern Queensland to the cool temperate and montane rainforests of southern Australia and Tasmania. Phylogenetic trees based upon partial sequences of the mitochondrial genes cytochrome oxidase II and 16S mtDNA show that populations tend to be clustered into allopatric geographic groups showing overall concordance with the known species distributions. The deepest division is between the cool-adapted southern subgenus, Lucifera, and the more widespread subgenus, Campara. Lucifera comprises the sister groups, A. tasmaniensis, from Tasmania and the newly described species, A. buffaloensis, found in a high-altitude cave at Mt Buffalo in the Australian Alps in Victoria. The remaining Australian glow-worms in subgenus Campara are distributed in a swathe of geographic clusters that extend from the Wet Tropics in northern Queensland to the temperate forests of southern Victoria. Samples from caves and rainforests within any one geographic location tended to cluster together within a clade. We suggest that the morphological differences between hypogean (cave) and epigean (surface) glow-worm larvae are facultative adaptations to local microclimatic conditions rather than due to the presence of cryptic species in caves.     

Australian barnacles (cirripedia: thoracica), distributions and biogeographical affinities

Currently, 279 barnacle species are recognized in Australia waters. The barnacle fauna of tropical Australia exhibits high species diversity (221), with a high incidence of tropical species (87 Indo-west Pacific [IWP], 16 West Pacific and 65 Indo-Malayan), a low species endemicity (8), and 44 cosmopolitan and 1 Australasian species. Conversely, that of temperate Australia shows lower species diversity (129), with a lower incidence of tropical species (26 IWP, 10 West Pacific and 25 Indo-Malayan), higher species endemicity (23), 37 cosmopolitan, 6 Australasian species, and 3 Australasian/Antarctic species. Distributions corroborate the general patterns demonstrated by the shallow-water biota of northern tropical and southern temperate Australian biogeographic provinces. Tropical and temperate provinces grade into each other in a broad overlap zone along both the western and eastern Australian coasts. This overlap zone is essentially a transitional region, with the gradual replacement of a tropical barnacle fauna in the north by a predominantly temperate barnacle fauna in the south. Both western and eastern Australian coasts are bounded by major poleward-flowing warm currents that have considerable influence on the marine flora and fauna, distributing tropical species of many taxa much farther south than could be predicted by latitude. Currently, 16 barnacle species introduced into Australian waters are identified, although this number may increase in the future due to new port developments and increased shipping arrivals.     

Rotifera from Western Australian wetlands with descriptions of two new species

The rotifer fauna of 100 fresh and saline wetlands of southwest Western Australia is documented. A systematic list of 83 recorded taxa is given, with eleven new records for the continent and two new species (Brachionus pinneenaus n. sp. and Lecane boorali n. sp.) described and figured. Species assemblages are distinct from those of eastern Australia, with predominant taxa halophilous or indicative of ephemeral waters. Evolutionary and biogeographical relationships of the Western Australian rotifers are considered.     

Plate 468. Rhizanthella Gardneri Orchidaceae

Since the almost simultaneous discovery of two underground orchids in Australia, the western Rhizanthella gardneri R.S. Rogers and the eastern Rhizanthella slateri Rupp in 1928 and 1931, botanists have pondered the relationship between these elusive and enigmatic species. Here the biological and ecological relationships of the western underground orchid are discussed and new research to uncover the mysterious life histories of these unique Australian plants is described.     

Relationships among climate,latitude and migration: Australian butterflies are not temperate-zone birds

We examined the distribution of butterflies over the mostly arid and semi-arid continent of Australia and analyzed the proportion of migrant species and species diversity with respect to an array of climatic and geographic variables. On a continent-wide scale, latitude explained virtually no variance in either proportion of migrants (r ²=0.01) or species diversity (r ²=0.03) in Australian butterflies. These results are in marked contrast to those for temperate-zone birds from three continents where latitude explained between 82 and 98% of the variance in frequency of migrants and also accounted for much of the variance in bird species diversity. In eastern Australia where rainfall regimes are similar to those in temperate Europe and North and South America, latitude explains 78% of the variance in frequency of butterfly migrants. In both eastern and central Australia, latitude also accounts for relatively high proportions of the variance in species diversity. Rainfall patterns and especially soil moisture are negatively associated with migration frequency in Australian butterfly faunas, both alone and in combination with other climate variables. Where moisture levels are relatively high, as in eastern Australia, measures of temperature are associated with migration frequency, a result consistent with findings for temperate-zone birds, suggesting latitude is a surrogate for temperature. The ultimate causes of migration in temperate-zone birds and Australian butterflies are the uneven temporal, and in Australia also spatial, distribution of resources. Uneven distribution is brought about primarily by temperature in temperate regions and by erratic rainfall over much of arid Australia. As a key determinant of productivity, especially in the tropics and subtropics, aridity is likely to be an important determinant of the global distributions of migrants. Received: 14 July 1999 / Accepted: 12 January 2000     

A phylogenetic hypothesis for Crocodylus (Crocodylia) based on mitochondrial DNA: evidence for a trans-Atlantic voyage from Africa to the New World

The phylogenetic relationships among extant species of Crocodylus (Crocodylia) have been inconsistently resolved by previous systematic studies. Here we used nearly complete mitochondrial (mt) genomes (～16,200 base pairs) for all described Crocodylus species, eight of which are new to this study, to derive a generally well-supported phylogenetic hypothesis for the genus. Model-based analyses support monophyly of all Asian+Australian species and paraphyly of Crocodylus niloticus (Nile crocodile) with a monophyletic New World clade nested within this species. Wild-caught Nile crocodiles from eastern populations group robustly with the four New World species to the exclusion of Nile crocodiles from western populations, a result that is also favored by parsimony analyses and by various subpartitions of the overall mt dataset. The fossil record of Crocodylus extends back only to the Late Miocene, while the earliest fossils assigned to C. niloticus and to New World Crocodylus are Pliocene. Therefore, in combination with paleontological evidence, mt DNA trees imply a relatively recent migration of Crocodylus from Africa to the Americas, a voyage that would have covered hundreds of miles at sea.     

Isolation and genetic diversity of endangered grey nurse shark (Carcharias taurus) populations

Anthropogenic impacts are believed to be the primary threats to the eastern Australian population of grey nurse sharks (Carcharias taurus), which is listed as critically endangered, and the most threatened population globally. Analyses of 235 polymorphic amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP) loci and 700 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA control region provide the first account of genetic variation and geographical partitioning (east and west coasts of Australia, South Africa) in C. taurus. Assignment tests, analysis of relatedness and Fst values all indicate that the Australian populations are isolated from South Africa, with negligible migration between the east and west Australian coasts. There are significant differences in levels of genetic variation among regions. Australian C. taurus, particularly the eastern population, has significantly less AFLP variation than the other sampling localities. Further, the eastern Australian sharks possess only a single mitochondrial haplotype, also suggesting a small number of founding individuals. Therefore, historical, rather than anthropogenic processes most likely account for their depauperate genetic variation. These findings have implications for the viability of the eastern Australian population of grey nurse sharks.     

Revision of the monogenean subfamily Thoracocotylinae Price, 1936 (Polyopisthocotylea: Thoracocotylidae), with the description of a new species of the genus Pseudothoracocotyla Yamaguti, 1963

Members of the subfamily Thoracocotylinae are gastrocotylid monogeneans of Spanish mackerels (scombrid fishes of the genus Scomberomorus) from warm to warm-temperate seas around the world. We revise the diagnosis of the subfamily and recognise two genera and three species as valid. The genus Paradawesia Bravo Hollis & Lamothe Argumedo, 1976 is synonymised with Thoracocotyle MacCallum, 1913, and Dawesia Unnithan, 1965 and Methoracocotyle Lebedev, 1984 are synonymised with Pseudothoracocotyla Yamaguti, 1963. Thoracocotyle crocea MacCallum, 1913 (syns T. paradoxica Meserve, 1938 and Paradawesia bychowskyi Bravo Hollis & Lamothe Argumedo, 1976) is recorded from two species of Scomberomorus in the eastern Pacific (California to Peru) and four in the western Atlantic (South Carolina to Brazil). Pseudothoracocotyla ovalis (Tripathi, 1956) Yamaguti, 1963 (new syns Dawesia indica Unnithan, 1965, D. incisa Lebedev, 1970, Methoracocotyle scomberomori (Young, 1968) Lebedev, 1984, M. gigantica (Rohde, 1976) Lebedev, 1984 and Thoracotyle indica (Unnithan, 1965) Murugesh, 1995) is recorded from the gills of seven species of Scomberomorus from the Indo-west Pacific (eastern South Africa north to the Persian Gulf, and east to Fiji). Pseudothoracocotyla whittingtoni n. sp. is described from an eighth Indo-west Pacific scomberomorid, S. munroi, in Australian waters.     

Continent-wide distribution in mycorrhizal fungi: implications for the biogeography of specialized orchids

Background and Aims Although mycorrhizal associations are predominantly generalist, specialized mycorrhizal interactions have repeatedly evolved in Orchidaceae, suggesting a potential role in limiting the geographical range of orchid species. In particular, the Australian orchid flora is characterized by high mycorrhizal specialization and short-range endemism. This study investigates the mycorrhizae used by Pheladenia deformis, one of the few orchid species to occur across the Australian continent. Specifically, it examines whether P. deformis is widely distributed through using multiple fungi or a single widespread fungus, and if the fungi used by Australian orchids are widespread at the continental scale.Methods Mycorrhizal fungi were isolated from P. deformis populations in eastern and western Australia. Germination trials using seed from western Australian populations were conducted to test if these fungi supported germination, regardless of the region in which they occurred. A phylogenetic analysis was undertaken using isolates from P. deformis and other Australian orchids that use the genus Sebacina to test for the occurrence of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) in eastern and western Australia.Key Results With the exception of one isolate, all fungi used by P. deformis belonged to a single fungal OTU of Sebacina. Fungal isolates from eastern and western Australia supported germination of P. deformis. A phylogenetic analysis of Australian Sebacina revealed that all of the OTUs that had been well sampled occurred on both sides of the continent.Conclusions The use of a widespread fungal OTU in P. deformis enables a broad distribution despite high mycorrhizal specificity. The Sebacina OTUs that are used by a range of Australian orchids occur on both sides of the continent, demonstrating that the short-range endemism prevalent in the orchids is not driven by fungal species with narrow distributions. Alternatively, a combination of specific edaphic requirements and a high incidence of pollination by sexual deception may explain biogeographic patterns in southern Australian orchids.     

Key to the New Zealand species of Psyllaephagus Ashmead (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) with descriptions of three new species and a new record of the psyllid hyperparasitoid Coccidoctonus psyllae Riek (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)

Abstract  This paper records seven species of wasps in the genus Psyllaephagus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) from New Zealand. All of these species are primary parasitoids of psylloids (Hemiptera: Psylloidea). Two are species previously described from New Zealand: P. acaciae Noyes and P. pilosus Noyes. Two are described Australian species which have established recently: P. bliteus Riek and P. gemitus Riek. Three new species are described here, from New Zealand: P. breviramus sp. nov., P. cornwallensis sp. nov. and P. richardhenryi sp. nov. All species are probably Australian in origin. A key to all seven Psyllaephagus species known from New Zealand is provided. An earlier first record of the Australian psyllid hyperparasitoid Coccidoctonus psyllae Riek (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), previously first recorded from New Zealand in 2006, is noted.