Illegitimate recombination in Bacillus subtilis: nucleotide sequences at recombinant DNA junctions

Summary The illegitimate integration of plasmid pGG20 (the hybrid between Staphylococcus aureus plasmid pE194 and Escherichia coli plasmid pBR322) into the Bacillus subtilis chromosome was studied. It was found that nucleotide sequences of both parental plasmids could be involved in this process. The recombinant DNA junctions between plasmid pGG20 and the chromosome were cloned and their nucleotide sequences were determined. The site of recombination located on the pBR322 moiety carried a short region (8 bp) homologous with the site on the chromosome. The nucleotide sequences of the pE194 recombination sites did not share homology with chromosomal sequences involved in the integration process. Two different pathways of illegitimate recombination in B. subtilis are suggested.     

Intermediates in extrachromosomal homologous recombination in Xenopus laevis oocytes: characterization by electron microscopy.

Several molecular mechanisms have been proposed to account for nonconservative homologous recombination. This type of recombination is particularly efficient in Xenopus oocytes when appropriate DNA substrates are injected. To distinguish between possible models, we have investigated recombination intermediates from oocytes by direct observation in the electron microscope. Partially recombined DNA was crosslinked with a psoralen derivative after incubation in oocytes to limit the branch migration that might occur during recovery procedures and alter the structures that were initially present. Branched structures, which we interpret as intermediates, represented approximately 10% of the DNA recovered and were readily analyzed. We did not observe any structures with internal loops predicted by invasion mechanisms. The majority of intermediates had one or two single-stranded branches on product-sized molecules, as predicted for incomplete junctions in the resection-annealing mechanism. Detailed length measurements confirmed the expectations of that model. When recovered DNA was not crosslinked, or when annealed junctions were prepared in vitro, we saw branched structures that indicated the occurrence of extensive branch migration. Comparison with the crosslinked sample confirmed the effectiveness of the crosslinking in preserving structures created in the oocytes. Our results strongly support a resection-annealing mechanism of recombination in oocytes.     

Illegitimate replication of linear hepadnavirus DNA through nonhomologous recombination.

Linear hepadnavirus DNA in primary hepatocyte cultures efficiently participates in intra- and intermolecular nonhomologous recombination at its ends. The products of this recombination are (i) monomeric covalently closed circular DNAs (cccDNAs) with deletions and insertions around the site of joining and (ii) oligomeric forms in which monomers are joined near the ends in random orientation. A fraction of monomeric cccDNAs can serve as intermediates in further DNA replication through at least five generations of nonhomologous recombination in a process we call illegitimate replication. We suggest that the monomeric and oligomeric linear DNAs produced by illegitimate replication may be precursors of the integrated and other high-molecular-weight hepadnaviral DNA forms seen in chronic infection.     

Illegitimate recombination induced by DNA double-strand breaks in a mammalian chromosome.

We examined DNA double-strand-break-induced mutations in the endogenous adenine phosphoribosyl-transferase (APRT) gene in cultured Chinese hamster ovary cells after exposure to restriction endonucleases. PvuII, EcoRV, and StuI, all of which produce blunt-end DNA double-strand breaks, were electroporated into CHO-AT3-2 cells hemizygous at the APRT locus. Colonies of viable cells containing mutations at APRT were expanded, and the mutations that occurred during break repair were analyzed at the DNA sequence level. Restriction enzyme-induced mutations consisted of small deletions of 1 to 36 bp, insertions, and combinations of insertions and deletions at the cleavage sites. Most of the small deletions involved overlaps of one to four complementary bases at the recombination junctions. Southern blot analysis revealed more complex mutations, suggesting translocation, inversion, or insertion of larger chromosomal fragments. These results indicate that blunt-end DNA double-strand breaks can induce illegitimate (nonhomologous) recombination in mammalian chromosomes and that they play an important role in mutagenesis.     

Illegitimate recombination: An efficient method for random mutagenesis in Mycobacterium avium subsp. hominissuis

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: The genus Mycobacterium (M.) comprises highly pathogenic bacteria such as M. tuberculosis as well as environmental opportunistic bacteria called non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM). While the incidence of tuberculosis is declining in the developed world, infection rates by NTM are increasing. NTM are ubiquitous and have been isolated from soil, natural water sources, tap water, biofilms, aerosols, dust and sawdust. Lung infections as well as lymphadenitis are most often caused by M. avium subsp. hominissuis (MAH), which is considered to be among the clinically most important NTM. Only few virulence genes from M. avium have been defined among other things due to difficulties in generating M. avium mutants. More efforts in developing new methods for mutagenesis of M. avium and identification of virulence-associated genes are therefore needed. RESULTS: We developed a random mutagenesis method based on illegitimate recombination and integration of a Hygromycin-resistance marker. Screening for mutations possibly affecting virulence was performed by monitoring of pH resistance, colony morphology, cytokine induction in infected macrophages and intracellular persistence. Out of 50 randomly chosen Hygromycin-resistant colonies, four revealed to be affected in virulence-related traits. The mutated genes were MAV_4334 (nitroreductase family protein), MAV_5106 (phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase), MAV_1778 (GTP-binding protein LepA) and MAV_3128 (lysyl-tRNA synthetase LysS). CONCLUSIONS: We established a random mutagenesis method for MAH that can be easily carried out and combined it with a set of phenotypic screening methods for the identification of virulence-associated mutants. By this method, four new MAH genes were identified that may be involved in virulence.     

Illegitimate recombination in a bovine papillomavirus shuttle vector: a high level of site specificity.

Recombination in a bovine papillomavirus shuttle vector carrying direct repeats of Moloney murine leukemia virus LTR sequence was examined. Differently from similar vectors carrying direct repeats of SV40 polyA addition signal or neomycin resistance gene, the vector exhibited no homologous recombination between the repeats. Instead, illegitimate recombination took place. There were two major types of recombination products from the restriction cleavage pattern. The plasmids in independent cellular clones belonging to the same recombination type shared the identical crossover point. Thus, in this plasmid, illegitimate recombination occurred at preferential sites involving exactly the same sequences.     

Illegitimate recombination mediated by T4 DNA topoisomerase in vitro

Summary Illegitimate recombination dependent on T4 DNA topoisomerase in a cell-free system has recently been described. In that work, recombinants between two phage DNA molecules were produced by the topoisomerase alone, without an Escherichia coli extract. In this paper, it is shown that recombination between phage and circular plasmid DNA molecules can also be detected in the presence or absence of an E. coli extract but at frequencies two or three orders of magnitude lower than that observed in the phage-phage cross. The frequency is probably lower because multiple recombination is required in the case of the phage-plasmid cross.     

Illegitimate recombination in the histone multigenic family generates circular DNAs in Drosophila embryos.

From extrachromosomal covalently closed circular DNA molecules purified from Drosophila melanogaster embryos, we have isolated 24 clones homologous to the histone tandemly repeated gene family. Some of the clones harbor one of the two main types of genomic repeated units of 4.8 and 5.0 kb. and probably result from homologous recombination. The remaining clones have a size ranging from 0.2 to 2.5 kb. and most of them carry a single fragment of the repeated unit. Nucleotide sequences of the junction region of six of these clones indicate they are generated by illegitimate recombination between short (8-15 bp.) imperfect direct repeats. The data suggest that most of the histone homologous circular DNA molecules are deleted histone units.     

Illegitimate recombination as a possible mechanism of topoisomerase-II-induced chromosomal rearrangements

Using a semiquantitative PCR-based approach, a breakpoint cluster region of AML1 was associated with the nuclear matrix. Inhibition of topoisomerase II (topoII) by etoposide stimulated the appearance of histone γH2AX foci, indicative of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). The majority of these foci were associated with the nuclear matrix. Nuclear matrix-associated multiprotein complexes involved in topoII-induced DNA DSB repair were visualized. Colocalization studies demonstrated that these complexes included the main components of the nonhomologous end joining repair system (Ku80, DNA-PKcs, and DNA ligase IV). Thus, it was suggested that nonhomologous DNA end joining is a possible mechanism of topoII-induced chromosomal rear-rangements.     

Repair and recombination of X-irradiated plasmids in Xenopus laevis oocytes.

Plasmid DNA substrates were X-irradiated and injected into the nuclei of Xenopus laevis oocytes. After incubation for 20 h, DNA was recovered from the oocytes and analyzed simultaneously for repair and for intermolecular homologous recombination by electrophoresis and bacterial transformation. Oocyte-mediated repair of DNA strand breaks was observed with both methods. Using a repair-deficient mutant Escherichia coli strain and its repair-proficient parent as hosts for the transformation assay, we also demonstrated that oocytes repaired oxidative-type DNA base damage induced by X-rays. X-irradiation of a circular DNA stimulated its potential to recombine with a homologous linear partner. Recombination products were detected directly by Southern blot hybridization and as bacterial transformant clones expressing two antibiotic resistance markers originally carried separately on the two substrates. The increase in recombination was dependent on X-ray dose. There is some suggestion that lesions other than double-strand breaks contribute to the stimulation of oocyte-mediated homologous recombination. In summary, oocytes have considerable capacity to repair X-ray-induced damage, and some X-ray lesions stimulate homologous recombination in these cells.     

Xer-mediated site-specific recombination at cer generates Holliday junctions in vivo.

Normal segregation of the Escherichia coli chromosome and stable inheritance of multicopy plasmids such as ColE1 requires the Xer site-specific recombination system. Two putative lambda integrase family recombinases, XerC and XerD, participate in the recombination reactions. We have constructed an E. coli strain in which the expression of xerC can be tightly regulated, thereby allowing the analysis of controlled recombination reactions in vivo. Xer-mediated recombination in this strain generates Holliday junction-containing DNA molecules in which a specific pair of strands has been exchanged in addition to complete recombinant products. This suggests that Xer site-specific recombination utilizes a strand exchange mechanism similar or identical to that of other members of the lambda integrase family of recombination systems. The controlled in vivo recombination reaction at cer requires recombinase and two accessory proteins, ArgR and PepA. Generation of Holliday junctions and recombinant products is equally efficient in RuvC- and RuvC+ cells, and in cells containing a multicopy RuvC+ plasmid. Controlled XerC expression is also used to analyse the efficiency of recombination between variant cer sites containing sequence alterations and heterologies within their central regions.     

Species-specific voltage-gating properties of connexin-45 junctions expressed in Xenopus oocytes.

Gap junctions composed of connexin-45 (Cx45) homologs from four species, zebrafish, chicken, mouse, and human, were expressed in pairs of Xenopus oocytes. The macroscopic conductance (gj) of all Cx45 junctions was modulated by transjunctional voltage (Vj) and by the inside-outside voltage (Vm), and the modulation was species specific. Although their gating characteristics varied in voltage sensitivity and kinetics, the four Cx45 junctions shared 1) maximum conductance at Vj = 0 and symmetrical gj reduction in response to positive and negative Vj of low amplitude, with little residual conductance; and 2) gj increases in response to simultaneous depolarization of the paired cells. The formation of hybrid channels, comprising Cx45 hemichannels from different species, allowed us to infer that two separate gates exist, one in each hemichannel, and that each Cx45 hemichannel is closed by the negativity of Vj on its cytoplasmic side. Interestingly, the Vm dependence of hybrid channels also suggests the presence of two gates in series, one Vm gate in each hemichannel. Thus the Vj and Vm dependence provides evidence that two independent voltage gates in each Cx45 hemichannel exist, reacting through specific voltage sensors and operating by different mechanisms, properties that have evolved divergently among species.     

Illegitimate recombination leading to allelic loss and unbalanced translocation in p53-mutated human lymphoblastoid cells.

Allelic loss and translocation are critical mutational events in human tumorigenesis. Allelic loss, which is usually identified as loss of heterozygosity (LOH), is frequently observed at tumor suppressor loci in various kinds of human tumors. It is generally thought to result from deletion or mitotic recombination between homologous chromosomes. In this report, we demonstrate that illegitimate (nonhomologous) recombination strongly contributes to the generation of allelic loss in p53-mutated cells. Spontaneous and X-ray-induced LOH mutations at the heterozygous thymidine kinase (tk) gene, which is located on the long arm of chromosome 17, from normal (TK6) and p53-mutated (WTK-1) human lymphoblastoid cells were cytogenetically analyzed by chromosome 17 painting. We observed unbalanced translocations in 53% of LOH mutants spontaneously arising from WTK-1 cells but none spontaneously arising from TK6 cells. We postulate that illegitimate recombination was occurring between nonhomologous chromosomes after DNA replication, leading to allelic loss and unbalanced translocations in p53-mutated WTK-1 cells. X-ray irradiation, which induces DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), enhanced the generation of unbalanced translocation more efficiently in WTK-1 than in TK6 cells. This observation implicates the wild-type p53 protein in the regulation of homologous recombination and recombinational DNA repair of DSBs and suggests a possible mechanism by which loss of p53 function may cause genomic instability.     

DNA recombination: holliday junctions dynamics and branch migration

Holliday junctions are critical intermediates for homologous, site-specific recombination, DNA repair, and replication. A wealth of structural information is available for immobile four-way junctions, but the controversy on the mechanism of branch migration of Holliday junctions remains unsolved. Two models for the mechanism of branch migration were suggested. According to the early model of Alberts-Meselson-Sigal (Sigal, N., and Alberts, B. (1972) J. Mol. Biol. 71, 789-793 and Meselson, M. (1972) J. Mol. Biol. 71, 795-798), exchanging DNA strands around the junction remain parallel during branch migration. Kinetic studies of branch migration (Panyutin, I. G., and Hsieh, P. (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 91, 2021-2025) suggest an alternative model in which the junction adopts an extended conformation. We tested these models using a Holliday junction undergoing branch migration and time-lapse atomic force microscopy, an imaging technique capable of imaging DNA dynamics. The single molecule atomic force microscopy experiments performed in the presence and in the absence of divalent cations show that mobile Holliday junctions adopt an unfolded conformation during branch migration that is retained despite a broad range of motion in the arms of the junction. This conformation of the junction remains unchanged until strand separation. The data obtained support the model for branch migration having the extended conformation of the Holliday junction.     

Homologous and illegitimate recombination in developing Xenopus oocytes and eggs.

Exogenous DNA is efficiently recombined when injected into the nuclei of Xenopus laevis oocytes. This reaction proceeds by a homologous resection-annealing mechanism which depends on the activity of a 5'-->3' exonuclease. Two possible functions for this recombination activity have been proposed: it may be a remnant of an early process in oogenesis, such as meiotic recombination or amplification of genes coding for rRNA, or it may reflect materials stored for embryogenesis. To test these hypotheses, recombination capabilities were examined with oocytes at various developmental stages. Late-stage oocytes performed only homologous recombination, whereas the smallest oocytes ligated the restriction ends of the injected DNA but supported no homologous recombination. This transition from ligation to recombination activity was also seen in nuclear extracts from these same stages. Exonuclease activity was measured in the nuclear extracts and found to be low in early stages and then to increase in parallel with recombination capacity in later stages. The accumulation of exonuclease and recombination activities during oogenesis suggests that they are stored for embryogenesis and are not present for oocyte-specific functions. Eggs were also tested and found to catalyze homologous recombination, ligation, and illegitimate recombination. Retention of homologous recombination in eggs is consistent with an embryonic function for the resection-annealing mechanism. The observation of all three reactions in eggs suggests that multiple pathways are available for the repair of double-strand breaks during the extremely rapid cleavage stages after fertilization.     

Illegitimate recombination as a possible mechanism of DNA-topoisomerase II induced chromosomal rearrangements

Using semi-quantitative PCR-based approach, we have shown that the breakpoint cluster region of the AML1 gene was associated with the nuclear matrix. We have demonstrated that inhibition of topoisomerase II by etoposide stimulates the appearance of histone gammaH2AX foci, an indicator for the presence of DNA double-strand breaks. Furthermore, the major part of these foci was associated with the nuclear matrix. We also visualized nuclear matrix--associated multiprotein complexes involved in topoisomerase II--induced DNA double-strand break repair. Colocalization studies have demonstrated that these complexes included the principal components of the non-homologous end joining repair system (Ku80, DNA-PKcs and DNA ligase IV). Thus, it is reasonable to suggest that the non-homologous DNA end joining is a possible mechanism of topoisomerase II--induced chromosomal rearrangements.     

Effect of terminal nonhomologies on homologous recombination in Xenopus laevis oocytes.

Homologous recombination of linear DNA molecules in Xenopus laevis oocytes is very efficient. The predictions of molecular models for this recombination process were tested with substrates with terminal nonhomologies (nonhomologous sequences). It was found that nonhomologies on one or both ends of an otherwise efficient substrate substantially reduced the yield of recombination products. In the case of a single nonhomology, inhibition was observed for all lengths of nonhomology, from 60 to 1,690 bp, being most dramatic for the longer blocks. Examination of time courses of recombination showed that the blocks were largely kinetic; that is, substrates with short nonhomologies eventually yielded substantial levels of completed products. Intermediates that accumulated after the injection of end-blocked substrates were characterized by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and hybridization with strand-specific oligonucleotide probes. These blocked intermediates were shown to have base-paired junctions, but resolution was prevented by the failure to remove the 3'-ending strand of the original nonhomology. Continuing exonuclease action created a single-strand gap adjacent to the position of the persistent nonhomology. In contrast, the strand that included the unblocked side of the junction could be sealed. These results are consistent with a nonconservative, resection-annealing mechanism of homologous recombination in the oocytes and suggest the absence of any activity that can efficiently remove 3' tails.