Influence of the skeleton on the cytotoxicity of flavonoids

Analogs of 3'-amino-5-hydroxy-3,6,7,8,4'-pentamethoxy-flavone, a strongly cytotoxic and antimitotic semisynthetic flavone, were synthesized in the aurone, isoflavone and isoflavanone series. Comparison of the biological activity of these new compounds with the reference showed a potent cytotoxicity only in the flavone series. Influence of the hydroxy group (at C-5 in flavones, at C-4 in aurones) on the cytotoxicity, known to be favorable in flavones, was found to be detrimental in aurones. This observation was related to the hydrogen bonding formed with the carbonyl group, strong in the flavones, but of weak intensity in the aurones.     

Synthesis of aurones and their inhibitory effects on nitric oxide and PGE2 productions in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells

Sulfuretin is one of major constituents of Rhus verniciflua that exerts anti-inflammatory activities. Some of aurones were synthesized as sulfuretin derivatives and evaluated for their abilities to inhibit NO and PGE₂ production in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells in order to reveal the relationship. Of the aurones synthesized in the present study, 2h and 2i, which possess C-6 hydroxyl group in A-ring and methoxy substituents in B-ring, more potently inhibited NO and PGE₂ production and were less cytotoxic than sulfuretin.     

DPPH radical scavenging reaction of hydroxy- and methoxychalcones

The DPPH radical scavenging activity of 2',4',6'-trihydroxy- and 2'-hydroxy-4',6'-dimethoxychalcones carrying a 2,3- and 3,4-dihydroxylated, and 3,4,5-trihydroxylated B-ring was evaluated in alcoholic and non-alcoholic solvents. All test compounds scavenged more than two equivalent of radicals by a possible conversion to the corresponding B-ring quinones and in most cases subsequently underwent cyclization to aurones and flavanones, these being identified in the reaction solutions by an in situ NMR analysis. Interestingly, the reaction between 2',3,4-trihydroxy-4',6'-dimethoxychalcone and the DPPH radical was significantly affected by the solvent used, which might be accounted for by the difference in readiness for cyclization to an aurone.     

Synthetic Aurones: New Features for Schistosoma mansoni Therapy

In this work, two synthetic aurones revealed moderate schistosomicidal potential in in vitro and in vivo assays. Aurones ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) promoted changes in tegument integrity and motor activity, leading to death of adult Schistosoma mansoni worms in in vitro assays. When administered orally (two doses of 50 mg/kg) in experimentally infected animals, synthetic aurones ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) promoted reductions of 56.20 % and 57.61 % of the parasite load and stimulated the displacement towards the liver of the remaining adult worms. The oogram analysis revealed that the treatment with both aurones interferes with the egg development kinetics in the intestinal tissue. Seeking an action target for compounds ( 1 ) and ( 2 ), the connection with NTPDases enzymes, recognized as important therapeutic targets for S. mansoni, was evaluated. Molecular docking studies have shown promising results. The dataset reveals the anthelmintic character of these compounds, which can be used in the development of new therapies for schistosomiasis.     

Flavonoids of Derris obtusa: Aurones and auronols

Heptacosanol and sitosterol, one chalcone, one flavone, one 3-O-methyl-flavonol, four aurones and two 3-O-methylauronols were isolated from the root bark of Derris obtusa. The latter compounds, called Derriobtusones A and B, are the first auronols found in nature. Structures were established through chemical and spectral means. Mass spectral fragmentation schemes are suggested for aurones and auronols.     

1-Azaaurones derived from the naturally occurring aurones as potential antimalarial drugs

We report the synthesis and in vitro antiplasmodial activity of 35 compounds, designed as analogues of the naturally occurring aurones. Several of these analogues showed submicromolar antimalarial activity against a chloroquine-resistant strain of Plasmodium falciparum (FcB1-Columbia strain) cultured on human erythrocytes. Substitution of the intracyclic oxygen in aurones by a nitrogen atom and systematic variation of the substituent at the B-ring revealed promising leads showing good activity on the CQ-resistant strain. In particular, 4,6-dimethoxy-4′-ethylazaaurone 22 showed antiplasmodial potency without noticeable toxicity. The easy synthesis of this family of compounds and the relevant antiplasmodial activity are in favor of promising candidates for further development.     

Antimalarial and Antileishmanial Activities of Phytophenolics and Their Synthetic Analogues

Thirty‐seven phytophenolics and their synthetic analogues were evaluated for activity against two protozoal pathogens, Leishmania donovani and Plasmodium falciparum (D6 and W2 clones), respectively. 4,6‐Dimethoxyaurone demonstrated the highest activity with IC₅₀ values of 13.2 and 16.9 μm against L. donovani and P. falciparum (W2 clone), respectively, without undesired cytotoxicity against VERO cells. The moiety having two benzene rings was critical to maintain the antiprotozoal activities based on the observation that both coumaranones and chromones were inactive while other test compounds, including coumarans and aurones, remained active. There was no correlation between antiprotozoal activities and previously evaluated insect antifeedant activity against common cutworms (Spodoptera litura). Flavonoids, including aurones, pterocarpans, and lignan like dihydrobenzofurans, structural analogues of coumarans, are abundant in fruits and vegetables, so these phytophenolics may act as natural antiprotozoal agents in humans.     

FLAVONOID CHEMISTRY AND SYSTEMATICS OF TITHONIA (COMPOSITAE)

Twenty-four flavonoid compounds, including chalcones and aurones, are reported from 13 taxa of Tithonia. Pedunculin (4′, 6, 7-trimethoxy, 5, 8-dihydroxyflavone), also is characterized. The distribution of these compounds is compared to the existing classification of the genus based primarily on morphological data. By comparison with the previously proposed phylogeny of the genus, the evolution of the flavonoid system may be elucidated. It is proposed that the ancestral stock of Tithonia had flavonols, di- and tri-methoxyflavones, and 6-methoxyflavones. From this ancestral stock, a number of trends have occured in derivative taxa. These trends are: 1) a maintenance of a diversity of compounds in several evolutionary lines, 2) a reduction in the number of methoxyl substitutions, and 3) the elaboration of 5-deoxyflavones and flavonols.     

Design,synthesis and biological evaluation of substituted flavones and aurones as potential anti-influenza agents

We designed a series of substituted flavones and aurones as non-competitive H1N1 neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors and anti-influenza agents. The molecular docking studies showed that the designed flavones and aurones occupied 150-cavity and 430-cavity of H1N1-NA. We then synthesized these compounds and evaluated these for cytotoxicity, reduction in H1N1 virus yield, H1N1-NA inhibition and kinetics of inhibition. The virus yield reduction assay and H1N1-NA inhibition assay demonstrated that the compound 1f (4-methoxyflavone) had the lowest EC₅₀ of 9.36 nM and IC₅₀ of 8.74 μM respectively. Moreover, kinetic studies illustrated that compounds 1f and 2f had non-competitive inhibition mechanism.     

Ethylenediamine diacetate (EDDA) mediated synthesis of aurones under ultrasound: Their evaluation as inhibitors of SIRT1

An improved synthesis of functionalized aurones has been accomplished via the reaction of benzofuran-3(2H)-one with a range of benzaldehydes in the presence of a mild base EDDA under ultrasound. A number of aurones were synthesized (within 5-30min) and the molecular structure of a representative compound determined by single crystal X-ray diffraction study confirmed Z-geometry of the C-C double bond present within the molecule. Some of the compounds synthesized have shown SIRT1 inhibiting as well as anti proliferative properties against two cancer cell lines in vitro. Compound 3a [(Z)-2-(5-bromo-2-hydroxybenzylidene) benzofuran-3(2H)-one] was identified as a potent inhibitor of SIRT1 (IC(50)=1μM) which showed a dose dependent increase in the acetylation of p53 resulting in induction of apoptosis.     

The effect of flavonoid derivatives on doxorubicin transport and metabolism

This study investigated the effect of naturally occurring flavonoids and synthetic aurone derivatives on the formation of cardiotoxic doxorubicinol and transport of doxorubicin in breast cancer cells. Quercetin significantly inhibited the formation of doxorubicinol. Quercetin and aurones did not significantly affect transport of [14C]doxorubicin in human resistant breast cancer cells. In conclusion, quercetin should be further tested for its potency to decrease doxorubicin-mediated toxicity.     

Natural and synthetic 2′-hydroxy-chalcones and aurones: Synthesis,characterization and evaluation of the antioxidant and soybean lipoxygenase inhibitory activity

A series of 2′-hydroxy-chalcones and their oxidative cyclization products, aurones, have been synthesized and tested for their antioxidant and lipoxygenase inhibitory activity. The natural product aureusidin (31) was synthesized in high yield by a new approach. An extensive structure-relationship study was performed and revealed that several chalcones and aurones possess an appealing pharmacological profile combining high antioxidant and lipid peroxidation activity with potent soybean LOX inhibition.     

THE FLAVONOIDS OF LASTHENIA (COMPOSITAE)

Lasthenia (Compositae: Helenieae), a western North American-Chilean genus of 16 species, produces 22 flavonoid glycosides. Flavonoids are the chalcones butein and okanin, the aurones maritimetin and sulfuretin, the flavone luteolin, and the flavonols kaempferol, quercetin, and patuletin. The presence or absence of various of these classes of compounds in general follows sectional alignments in the genus, confirms affinities based on morphological and cytological evidence, and suggests relationships of problematical species. Intraspecific variation in flavonoid constituents occurs in several species, and in one taxon intrapopulation variation seems to exist as well. Evolution within Lasthenia has been associated with a loss of the ability to produce or accumulate luteolin, chalcones, and aurones; an increase in diversity of quercetin glycosides; acquisition of the ability to produce patuletin; and an elaboration of glycosylation patterns of patuletin.     

Inhibition of guinea pig aldehyde oxidase activity by different flavonoid compounds: An in vitro study

Aldehyde oxidase (AO), a cytosolic molybdenum-containing hydroxylase, is predominantly active in liver and other tissues of mammalian species and involved in the metabolism of extensive range of aldehydes and nitrogen-containing compounds. A wide range of natural components including polyphenols are able to interfere with AO-catalyzed reactions. Polyphenols and flavonoids are one of the extensive secondary plant metabolites ubiquitously present in plants considered an important part of the human diet. The aim of the present study was to investigate inhibitory effect of selected phenolic compounds from three subclasses of aurone, flavanone and phenolic lactone compounds on the activity of AO, spectrophotometrically. AO enzyme was partially purified from liver of guinea pig. Then, inhibitory effects of 10 flavonoid compounds including 8 derivatives of 2-benzylidenebenzofuran-3(2H)-ones, as well as naringenin and ellagic acid on the activity of aldehyde oxidase were assessed compared with the specific inhibitor of AO, menadione. Among the phenolic compounds with inhibitory effects on the enzyme, ellagic acid (IC₅₀ = 14.47 μM) was the most potent agent with higher inhibitory action than menadione (IC₅₀ = 31.84 μM). The mechanisms by which flavonoid compounds inhibit AO activity have been also determined. The inhibitory process of the assessed compounds occurs via either a non-competitive or mixed mode. Although flavonoid compounds extensively present in the nature, mainly in dietary regimen, aurones with promising biological properties are not widely distributed in nature, so synthesis of aurone derivatives is of great importance. Additionally, aurones seem to provide a promising scaffold in medicinal chemistry for the skeleton of new developing drugs, so the results of the current study can be valuable in order to better understanding drug–food as well as drug–drug interaction and also appears to be worthwhile in drug development strategies.     

The scope of thallium nitrate oxidative cyclization of chalcones; synthesis and evaluation of isoflavone and aurone analogs for their inhibitory activity against interleukin-5

The oxidative cyclization of 2′-hydroxy-6′-cyclohexylmethoxychalcones 5 using thallium (III) nitrate (TTN) in alcoholic solvents produced isoflavones 2 and (or) aurones 3 depending on the electronic nature of p-substituents on ring B. Chalcones with strong electron donating substituents (OH, OCH₃) were exclusively converted to isoflavones 2. Chalcone with weak electron donating substituents (CH₂CH₃) was transformed into isoflavone 2 and the aurone 3 in approximate ratio 1:1. Chalcones with hydrogen or electron withdrawing substituents (Cl, CHO, COOCH₃, and NO₂) formed aurones 3. Synthesized isoflavones 2 and aurones 3 were evaluated for their inhibitory activity against interleukin-5. Among them, 5-(cyclohexylmethoxy)-3-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)-4H-chromen-4-one (2h, >100% inhibition at 50 μM, IC₅₀ = 6.1 μM) gave most potent activity. All the aurones 3 were inactive.     

Metabolic profiling and systematic identification of flavonoids and isoflavonoids in roots and cell suspension cultures of Medicago truncatula using HPLC-UV-ESI-MS and GC-MS

An integrated approach utilizing HPLC-UV-ESI-MS and GC-MS was used for the large-scale and systematic identification of polyphenols in Medicago truncatula root and cell culture. Under optimized conditions, we were able to simultaneously quantify and identify 35 polyphenols including 26 isoflavones, 3 flavones, 2 flavanones, 2 aurones and a chalcone. All identifications were based upon UV spectra, mass spectral characteristics of protonated molecules, tandem mass spectral data, mass measurements obtained using a quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer (QtofMS), and confirmed through the co-characterization of authentic compounds. In specific instances where the stereochemistry of sugar conjugates was uncertain, subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis of the conjugate followed by GC-MS was used to assign the sugar stereochemical configuration. Comparative metabolic profiling of Medicago truncatula root and cell cultures was then performed and revealed significant differences in the isoflavonoid composition of these two tissues.     

The total synthesis of an aurone isolated from Uvaria hamiltonii: aurones and flavones as anticancer agents

The naturally occurring aurone 1, isolated from Uvaria hamiltonii, and a series of aurones analogues based structurally on known tubulin binding agents were prepared and evaluated for anticancer activity. Aurone 20 was the most active (IC(50) K562 50 nM) and caused significant G2/M cell-cycle arrest.     

Inhibition of purified rabbit muscle phosphorylase a and phosphorylase b by polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated biphenylols and polybrominated biphenyls

Polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated biphenylols and polybrominated biphenyls inhibited both rabbit muscle phosphorylase a and phosphorylase b (1,4-alpha-D-glucan:orthophosphate alpha-d-glucosyltransferase, EC 2.4.1.1). The degree of inhibition was dependent upon the relative hydrophobicity of the compounds and steric hinderance. 2,4,5,2',4',5'-Hexabromobiphenyl and Firemaster BP-6 were the most effective inhibitors (Ki, 15 . 10(-6) M). Phosphorylase b was inhibited by compounds of all three groups. 2,4,5,2',4',5'-Hexachlorobiphenyl and 2,4,5,2',4',5'-hexabromobiphenyl did not significantly inhibit phosphorylase a. All of the compounds inhibited phosphorylase a less than phosphorylase b, except 2',3',4',5,5'-pentachloro-2-biphenylol, which was equally effective on each enzyme. Kinetic analysis showed the inhibition was non-competitive and mixed. The results indicate that the compounds bind to hydrophobic site(s) on phosphorylase, access to which is limited by phosphorylation of serine 24.     

Genetic engineering of flavonoid pigments to modify flower color in floricultural plants

Recent advances in genetic transformation techniques enable the production of desirable and novel flower colors in some important floricultural plants. Genetic engineering of novel flower colors is now a practical technology as typified by commercialization of a transgenic blue rose and blue carnation. Many researchers exploit knowledge of flavonoid biosynthesis effectively to obtain unique flower colors. So far, the main pigments targeted for flower color modification are anthocyanins that contribute to a variety of colors such as red, pink and blue, but recent studies have also utilized colorless or faint-colored compounds. For example, chalcones and aurones have been successfully engineered to produce yellow flowers, and flavones and flavonols used to change flower color hues. In this review, we summarize examples of successful flower color modification in floricultural plants focusing on recent advances in techniques.     

Aurones serve as probes of beta-amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease

A novel series of aurone derivatives for in vivo imaging of beta-amyloid plaques in the brain of Alzheimer's disease (AD) were synthesized and characterized. When in vitro binding studies using Abeta(1-42) aggregates were carried out with aurone derivatives, they showed high binding affinities for Abeta(1-42) aggregates at the K(i) values ranging from 1.2 to 6.8 nM. When in vitro plaque labeling was carried out using double transgenic mice brain sections, the aurone derivatives intensely stained beta-amyiloid plaques. Biodistribution studies in normal mice after i.v. injection of the radioiodinated aurones displayed high brain uptake (1.9-4.6% ID/g at 2 min) and rapid clearance from the brain (0.11-0.26% ID/g at 60 min), which is highly desirable for amyloid imaging agents. The results in this study suggest that novel radiolabeled aurones may be useful amyloid imaging agents for detecting beta-amyloid plaques in the brain of AD.