低温强光下籼粳稻紫黄质脱环氧化酶活性和类囊体膜脂不饱和度的变化

为了阐明籼稻(oryza sativa L.spp.indica)、粳稻(O.sativa L.spp.japonica)对低温强光敏感性的差异,着重研究了低温强光下水稻类囊体膜脂不饱和度与叶黄素循环的变化.随着低温强光处理时间的延长,类囊体膜脂不饱和脂肪酸含量降低,饱和脂肪酸含量增加,因而膜脂不饱和指数(IUFA)下降.同时,叶黄素循环的关键酶--紫黄质脱环氧化酶(VDE)活性降低,叶黄素循环组分中紫黄质(V)含量增加,而单环氧玉米黄质(A)和下米黄质(Z)的含量减少,表现为(A+Z)/(A+Z+V)比值下降.Arrhenius分析证明,VDE对低温和膜脂不饱和度都敏感.相关分析表明,类囊体IUFA分别与VDE活性、(A+Z)/(A +Z+V)和D1蛋白量呈显著的正相关.与粳稻9516相比,籼稻油优63类囊体膜的IUFA较低,低温下类囊体膜脂流动性和稳定性较差,VDE活性和(A+Z)/(A+Z+V)比值较低.     

低温强光下籼粳稻紫黄质脱环氧化酶活性和类囊体膜脂不饱和度的变化

为了阐明籼稻(Oryza sativa L.spp.indica)、粳稻(O.sativa L.spp.japonica)对低温强光敏感件的差异,着重研究了低温强光下水稻类囊体膜脂不饱和度与叶黄素循环的变化。随着低温强光处理时间的延长,类囊体膜脂不饱和脂肪酸含量降低,饱和脂肪酸含量增加,因而膜脂不饱和指数(IUFA)下降。同时,叶黄素循环的关键酶——紫黄质脱环氧化酶(VDE)活性降低,叶黄素循环组分中紫黄质(V)含量增加,而单环氧玉米黄质(A)和玉米黄质(Z)的含量减少,表现为(A Z)／(A Z V)比值下降。Arrhenius分析证明,VDE对低温和膜脂不饱和度都敏感。相关分析表明,类囊体IUFA分别与VDE活性、(A Z)／(A Z V)和D1蛋白量呈显著的正相关。与粳稻9516相比,籼稻汕优63类囊体膜的IUFA较低,低温下类囊体膜脂流动性和稳定性较筹,VDE活性和(A Z)／(A Z V)比值较低。     

Light-induced chloroplast movements in Lemna trisulca. Identification of the motile system

In mesophyll cells of the water plant Lemna trisulca L. chloroplasts redistribute in response to blue light. In the present study it is shown that an actin depolymerizing agent cytochalasin D, a crosslinker of actin subunits in F-actin m-maleimidobenzoic acid N-hydroxysuccinimide ester (MBS) as well as N-ethylmaleimide (NEM)—a sulfhydryl group reagent, are potent inhibitors of these blue light-induced chloroplast movements in Lemna. Extraction with cold, buffered glycerol solution preserves light-induced chloroplast arrangements within cells producing permeabilized cell models. ‘Reactivation’ of these cell models by Mg-ATP results in remarkable movements which can be inhibited by treatment with NEM and cytochalasin D. Immunofluorescence microscopy demonstrates that a component which is associated with isolated Lemna chloroplasts cross-reacts with antibodies directed against bovine myosin. These results indicate that a contractile actomyosin system is involved in blue light-induced chloroplast movements in Lemna and a putative motor protein, similar to myosin, is associated with the surface of Lemna chloroplasts.     

Effect of Temperature on In Vivo Protein Synthetic Capacity in Escherichia coli

In this report, we examine the effect of temperature on protein synthesis. The rate of protein accumulation is determined by three factors: the number of working ribosomes, the rate at which ribosomes are working, and the rate of protein degradation. Measurements of RNA/protein ratios and the levels of individual ribosomal proteins and rRNA show that the cellular amount of ribosomal machinery in Escherichia coli is constant between 25 and 37°C. Within this range, in a given medium, temperature affects ribosomal function the same as it affects overall growth. Two independent methodologies show that the peptide chain elongation rate increases as a function of temperature identically to growth rate up to 37°C. Unlike the growth rate, however, the elongation rate continues to increase up to 44°C at the same rate as between 25 and 37°C. Our results show that the peptide elongation rate is not rate limiting for growth at high temperature. Taking into consideration the number of ribosomes per unit of cell mass, there is an apparent excess of protein synthetic capacity in these cells, indicating a dramatic increase in protein degradation at high temperature. Temperature shift experiments show that peptide chain elongation rate increases immediately, which supports a mechanism of heat shock response induction in which an increase in unfolded, newly translated protein induces this response. In addition, we find that at low temperature (15°C), cells contain a pool of nontranslating ribosomes which do not contribute to cell growth, supporting the idea that there is a defect in initiation at low temperature.     

The Influence of Temperature on Chytridiomycosis In Vivo

Chytridiomycosis, an amphibian disease caused by the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), is an ideal system for studying the influence of temperature on host–pathogen relationships because both host and pathogen are ectothermic. Studies of Bd in culture suggest that optimal growth occurs between 17 and 23°C, and death of the fungus occurs above 29 or below 0°C. Amphibian immune systems, however, are also temperature dependent and often more effective at higher temperatures. We therefore hypothesized that pathogen load, probability of infection and mortality in Bd-exposed frogs would peak at a lower temperature than that at which Bd grows best in vitro. To test this, we conducted a study where Bd- and sham-exposed Northern cricket frogs (Acris crepitans) were incubated at six temperatures between 11 and 26°C. While probability of infection did not differ across temperatures, pathogen load and mortality were inversely related to temperature. Survival of infected hosts was greatest between 20 and 26°C, temperatures where Bd grows well in culture. These results demonstrate that the conditions under which a pathogen grows best in culture do not necessarily reflect patterns of pathogenicity, an important consideration for predicting the threat of this and other wildlife pathogens.     

GM1 Ganglioside: In Vivo and In Vitro Trophic Actions on Central Neurotransmitter Systems

Abstract: There is now substantial evidence that GM1 ganglioside is effective in partially correcting the consequences of neuroinjury in a number of in vivo and in vitro model systems. Although the molecular mechanism(s) and the substrates for the neurotrophic activity of the gangliosides are not fully understood, the published experimental work suggests that GM1 has antineurotoxic, neuroprotective, and neurorestorative effects on various central neurotransmitter systems. This review focuses attention on studies reporting that GM1 restores neuronal integrity and function in the brain of lesioned young as well as aged animals. Critical analysis of these studies can provide guidance for future ganglioside research and may point to novel approaches for treating neuroinjury and a variety of degenerative conditions, including aging.     

Fe Resupply to Fe-deficient Sugar Beet Plants Leads to Rapid Changes in the Violaxanthin Cycle and other Photosynthetic Characteristics without Significant de novo Chlorophyll Synthesis

The effects of Fe resupply to Fe-deficient plants have been investigated in hydroponically-grown sugar beet. In the short-term (24 h) after Fe resupply, major changes were observed, although de novo chlorophyll (Chl) synthesis had not begun yet. Approximately 50% of the zeaxanthin was converted into violaxanthin, whereas the actual Photosystem II (PS II) efficiency increased by 69% and non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) and the amount of thermally dissipated energy decreased markedly (by 47% and 40%, respectively). At the same time, photosynthetic rate increased approximately by 50%. From one to two days after Fe resupply, there was a gradual increase in the leaf concentrations of Chl and other photosynthetic pigments, accompanied by a further conversion of zeaxanthin into violaxanthin, increases in actual PS II efficiency and photosynthetic rates and decreases in NPQ and the amount of thermally dissipated energy. At 72-96 h after Fe resupply, leaf pigment concentrations, photosynthetic rates and actual PS II efficiency had increased further, although both photosynthetic rate and leaf pigment concentrations were still lower than those found in Fe-sufficient leaves. Good correlations were observed between the amount of light thermally dissipated by the PS II antenna, NPQ and the antheraxanthin + zeaxanthin concentration after Fe resupply, confirming the photoprotective role of the xanthophyll cycle in Fe-deficient sugar beet leaves. Similar correlations were observed for lutein, suggesting a possible role of this pigment in photoprotection.     

A Comparison of In Vitro- and In Vivo Phosphorylated Neurofilament Polypeptides

Abstract: Neurofilament polypeptides phosphorylated in vitro by incubation of neurofilament-enriched preparations from rat CNS with [γ-³²P]ATP were compared with the corresponding polypeptides labeled in vivo by injection of ³²P_i into the lateral ventricles of rats. Autoradiography of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-polyacrylamide gels revealed that the major phosphorylated species in both preparations were the three neurofilament subunits, which have molecular weights of 200K, 145K, and 68K. However, the relative levels of ³²P detected in the three in vitro -labeled subunits differed from the relative in vivo levels. The two larger neurofilament polypeptides displayed similar ³²P isoprotein distribution patterns on two-dimensional gels, whereas additional isoproteins were seen in the in vitro -labeled 68K species. Limited proteolysis in SDS-polyacrylamide gels revealed the presence of common phosphopeptides in the corresponding pairs of in vitro- and in vivo-labeled subunits, but the in vivo -labeled 145K and in vitro -labeled 200K polypeptides contained additional digestion products. Two-dimensional peptide mapping of the 68K polypeptide digested with a mixture of trypsin and chymotrypsin indicated that this component was phosphorylated at a single, identical site, both in vivo and in vitro. These results indicate that the protein kinase that copurifies with neurofilament preparations may be involved in their in vivo phosphorylation.     

干旱条件下冬小麦不同叶龄叶绿素荧光及叶黄素循环组分的变化(英文)

干旱条件下冬小麦叶片光化学效率（Ｆｖ／Ｆｍ）的降低伴随着叶黄素循环组分玉米黄质含量的增加。干旱初期,Ｆｖ／Ｆｍ 的降低约在暗置过夜后完全恢复。当干旱诱导的玉米黄质含量的增加达最大值时,Ｆｖ／Ｆｍ 不可逆下降,Ｆｏ 上升,表明发生了光破坏。与老叶相比,干旱条件下功能叶具有较高的玉米黄质含量,对光破坏的抗性较强。推测干旱条件下老叶不可逆衰老与其依赖于叶黄素循环的耗散过剩光能能力的下降有关。     

Effect of pH,Temperature, and Lead Concentration on the Bioremoval of Lead from Water Using Lemna Minor

This study examined the ability of the aquatic plant Lemna minor (duckweed) to remove soluble lead under various laboratory conditions. In a batch process L. minor was exposed to different pH values (4.5–8.0) and temperature (15–35°C) in presence of different lead concentrations (0.1–10.0 mg L^?1) for 168 h. The amount of biomass obtained in the study period on a dry weight basis, the concentrations of lead in tissue and in medium and net uptake of lead by Lemna all have been determined in each condition. The percentages of lead uptake ratios (PMU) and bioconcentration factors (BCF) were also calculated for these conditions. Bioaccumulated lead concentrations and the PMU were obtained at lowest pH of 4.5, and at 30°C. The highest accumulated lead concentration was found at pH 4.5 as 3.599 mg Pb g^?1 in 10.0 mg L^?1. It decreased to pH 6.0, but it did not change at pH 6.0–8.0 range. The maximum lead accumulation was obtained at 30°C as 8.622 mg Pb g^?1 in 10 mg L^?1 at pH 5.0, and the minimum was at 15°C as 0.291 mg g^?1 in 0.1 mg L^?1. Lead accumulation gradually increased with increasing lead in medium, but the opposite trend was observed for PMU. Lead accumulation increased up to 50 mg L^?1, but did not change significantly in the 50.0–100.0 mg L^?1 range. The lead uptake from water was modeled and the equation fit the experimental data very well.     

Comparison of In Vitro and In Vivo Labeling of Virus-Induced L-Cell Interferon

Preparations of NDV_uv-induced L-cell interferon were labeled in vitro with ¹²⁵I and ³H gas, or in vivo through incorporation of amino acids-³H during synthesis. Prior to purification, more than 90% of the interferon titer was lost during in vitro labeling by either procedure, whereas 34% of the initial activity of in vivo-labeled material was preserved during preparatory handling. Purification by carboxymethyl-Sephadex chromatography and electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gels was about 100-fold, and electrophoretic profiles revealed close concordance between isotopes and interferon titers in all instances. Noninterferon proteins from control cells, although less extensively labeled with tritium during synthesis than proteins from interferon-producing cells and released in lesser amounts, also contained components of identical electrophoretic mobility and distribution in acrylamide gels as interferon. The highest specific activity (6 x 10⁶ U/mg protein) but lowest cpm per interferon unit ratio (0.3) were exhibited by in vivo-labeled interferon. The advantage of better isotope incorporation through in vitro labeling techniques was largely offset by extensive losses in interferon activity.     

Comparison of the Immunomodulatory Properties of Three Probiotic Strains of Lactobacilli Using Complex Culture Systems: Prediction for In Vivo Efficacy

Background

While the use of probiotics to treat or prevent inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) has been proposed, to this point the clinical benefits have been limited. In this report we analyzed the immunological activity of three strains of Lactobacillus to predict their in vivo efficacy in protecting against experimental colitis.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We compared the immunological properties of Lactobacillus plantarum NCIMB8826, L. rhamnosus GG (LGG), L. paracasei {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"B21060","term_id":"2396114","term_text":"B21060"}}B21060 and pathogenic Salmonella typhimurium (SL1344). We studied the stimulatory effects of these different strains upon dendritic cells (DCs) either directly by co-culture or indirectly via conditioning of an epithelial intermediary. Furthermore, we characterized the effects of these strains in vivo using a Dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) model of colitis.We found that the three strains exhibited different abilities to induce inflammatory cytokine production by DCs with L. plantarum being the most effective followed by LGG and L. paracasei. L. paracasei minimally induced the release of cytokines, while it also inhibited the potential of DCs to both produce inflammatory cytokines (IL-12 and TNF-α) and to drive Th1 T cells in response to Salmonella. This effect on DCs was found under both direct and indirect stimulatory conditions – i.e. mediated by epithelial cells - and was dependent upon an as yet unidentified soluble mediator. When tested in vivo, L. plantarum and LGG exacerbated the development of DSS-induced colitis and caused the death of treated mice, while, conversely L. paracasei was protective.

Conclusions

We describe a new property of probiotics to either directly or indirectly inhibit DC activation by inflammatory bacteria. Moreover, some immunostimulatory probiotics not only failed to protect against colitis, they actually amplified the disease progression. In conclusion, caution must be exercised when choosing a probiotic strain to treat IBD.     

Squishy lipids: Temperature effects on the betaine and galactolipid profiles of a C18/C18 peridinin‐containing dinoflagellate,Symbiodinium microadriaticum (Dinophyceae), isolated from the mangrove jellyfish,Cassiopea xamachana

Previous work from our laboratory has shown dinoflagellates, which possess the carotenoid peridinin, have been divided into two clusters based on plastid galactolipid fatty acid composition. In one cluster major forms of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) and digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG), lipids that comprise the majority of photosynthetic membranes, were C₁₈/C₁₈ (sn‐1/sn‐2), with octadecapentaenoic [18:5(n‐3)] and octadecatetraenoic [18:4(n‐3)] acid as principal fatty acids. The other cluster contained C₂₀/C₁₈ major forms, with eicosapentaenoic acid [20:5(n‐3)] being the predominant sn‐1 fatty acid. In this study, we have found that Symbiodinium microadriaticum isolated from the jellyfish, Cassiopea xamachana, when grown at 30°C, produced MGDG and DGDG with a more saturated fatty acid, 18:4(n‐3), at the sn‐2 carbon than when grown at 20°C where 18:5(n‐3) predominates. This modulation of the sn‐2 fatty acid's level of saturation is mechanistically similar to what has been observed in Pyrocystis, a C₂₀/C₁₈ dinoflagellate. We have also examined the effect of growth temperature on the betaine lipid, diacylglycerylcarboxyhydroxymethylcholine (DGCC), which has been observed by others to be the predominant non plastidial polar lipid in dinoflagellates. Temperature effects on it were minimal, with very few modulations in fatty acid unsaturation as observed in MGDG and DGDG. Rather, the primary difference seen at the two growth temperatures was the alteration of the amount of minor forms of DGCC, as well as a second betaine lipid, diacylglyceryl‐N,N,N‐trimethylhomoserine.     

The Immunostimulatory Effect of Biogenic Selenium Nanoparticles on the 4T1 Breast Cancer Model: an In Vivo Study

Selenium salts as well as elemental selenium nanoparticles are attracting the attention of researchers due to their excellent biological properties. The aim of the present work was to study immunomodulation by applying elemental Se NPs to stimulate the immune response of mice bearing 4?T1 breast cancer tumors. Six- to 8-week-old female inbred BALB/c mice were divided into two groups of test and control, each containing 15 mice. Every day, for 2?weeks prior to tumor induction, selenium nanoparticles were orally administered to the mice at a dose of 100?μg/day. Then, 1?×?10(6) cells from a 4?T1 cell line were injected subcutaneously to each mouse. Oral nanoparticle administration was continued daily for 3?weeks after tumor induction. Different immunological parameters were then evaluated including cytokine level, delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) response as well as tumor growth and the survival rates in all treated or nontreated animals. The production of Th1 cytokines, such as IFN-γ and IL-12, in spleen cell culture was increased in the test mice-administered selenium nanoparticles. The DTH response of test mice also showed a significant increase when compared to the control mice. The survival rate was notably higher for the selenium nanoparticle-treated mice compared to the control mice. Our results suggest that selenium nanoparticle administration can result in considerable induction of the Th1 platform of immune response through the elevation of IFN-γ and IL-12 and may be a cause for better prognosis in mice with tumors.     

Hardly Increased Oxidative Stress After Exposure to Low Temperature in Chilling-Acclimated and Non-Acclimated Maize Leaves

Abstract: Seedlings of Zea mays L. were grown at optimal (25 °C) and suboptimal (15 °C) temperature and then exposed to severe chilling temperature (6 °C) at their growth light intensity (450 ìmol quanta m⁻² s⁻¹) for 4 d. Photosynthetic parameters, hydrogen peroxide, antioxidant contents, and activity of scavenging enzymes were investigated before, during, and after chilling stress. This stress caused a stronger reduction in photosynthetic activity, maximum quantum efficiency of photosystem II primary photochemistry ( F _v/ F _m), and catalase activity in plants which had been grown at 25 °C rather than at 15 °C. Maize plants grown at suboptimal temperature de-epoxidized their xanthophyll cycle pool to a greater extent and exhibited a faster recovery from chilling stress than plants which had not been acclimated to chilling. Antioxidant content, activity of scavenging enzymes, with the exception of catalase, hydrogen peroxide formation, and the size of the xanthophyll cycle pool were hardly affected by chilling stress. However, chilling induced a temporary increase in the glutathione content and triggered the synthesis of á-tocopherol during the phase of recovery at 25 °C. The results indicate that leaves respond to chilling stress by down-regulation of photosystem II accompanied by de-epoxidation of the xanthophyll cycle pool, probably to prevent enhanced formation of superoxide radicals at photosystem I and, consequently, other reactive oxygen species.     

In Vivo and In Vitro Metabolomic Analysis of Anaerobic Rice Coleoptiles Revealed Unexpected Pathways

The ability of the rice (Oryza sativa L.) seedling to tolerate extended hypoxia during submergence is largely attributed to the biochemical adaptation of its coleoptile. Rice coleoptiles are capable of sustaining ATP production and cytoplasmic pH, unlike flood-sensitive organs, such as maize shoots. Fermentation reactions leading to the production of ethanol, alanine, succinate, and -aminobutyrate (GAB) are active in both types of tissues and thus may not account for the difference in tolerance. We have shown previously that rice coleoptiles undergo nitrate reduction and metabolism, which is efficient in alleviating cytoplasmic acidosis and regenerating NAD. Here, we employed ¹³C-2-acetate tracer methods with in vivo ¹³C NMR measurement, including in vivo isotopomer analysis, to probe the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and interacting pathways in rice coleoptiles during anaerobiosis. We found that the TCA cycle underwent multiple turns based on the metabolic scrambling of ¹³C label patterns in glutamine and malate. The in vivo kinetics of the ¹³C label incorporation into glutamic acid, glutamine, and GAB supports a separate pool of glutamate that was derived from the glutamate dehydrogenase reaction and subsequently decarboxylated to yield GAB. Both reactions consume additional H⁺ and/or NADH. Moreover, the higher rate of ¹³C enrichment at C-3 than C-2 of malate suggests the contribution of the glyoxylate cycle to malate synthesis, which could replenish the TCA cycle carbons diverted to GAB, glutamate, and glutamine synthesis. All of the above reactions contribute to the maintenance of glycolysis for energy production.     

Effect of Epicatechin against Radiation-Induced Oral Mucositis: In Vitro and In Vivo Study

Purpose

Radiation-induced oral mucositis limits the delivery of high-dose radiation to head and neck cancer. This study investigated the effectiveness of epicatechin (EC), a component of green tea extracts, on radiation-induced oral mucositis in vitro and in vivo.

Experimental Design

The effect of EC on radiation-induced cytotoxicity was analyzed in the human keratinocyte line HaCaT. Radiation-induced apoptosis, change in mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and changes in the signaling pathway were investigated. In vivo therapeutic effects of EC for oral mucositis were explored in a rat model. Rats were monitored by daily inspections of the oral cavity, amount of oral intake, weight change and survival rate. For histopathologic evaluation, hematoxylin-eosin staining and TUNEL staining were performed.

Results

EC significantly inhibited radiation-induced apoptosis, change of MMP, and intracellular ROS generation in HaCaT cells. EC treatment markedly attenuated the expression of p-JNK, p-38, and cleaved caspase-3 after irradiation in the HaCaT cells. Rats with radiation-induced oral mucositis showed decreased oral intake, weight and survival rate, but oral administration of EC significantly restored all three parameters. Histopathologic changes were significantly decreased in the EC-treated irradiated rats. TUNEL staining of rat oral mucosa revealed that EC treatment significantly decreased radiation-induced apoptotic cells.

Conclusions

This study suggests that EC significantly inhibited radiation-induced apoptosis in keratinocytes and rat oral mucosa and may be a safe and effective candidate treatment for the prevention of radiation-induced mucositis.     

Carotenoids and Environmental Stress in Plants: Significance of Carotenoid-Mediated Modulation of Membrane Physical Properties

Carotenoids, apart of their antenna function in photosynthesis, play an important role in the mechanisms protecting the photosynthetic apparatus against various harmful environmental factors. They protect plants against overexcitation in strong light and dissipate the excess of absorbed energy, they scavenge reactive oxygen species formed during photooxidative stress and moderate the effect of extreme temperatures. One of the important factors involved in the protective action of carotenoids is their influence on the molecular dynamics of membranes. To obtain complex information about interactions between carotenoids and lipids in a membrane, different techniques were used. In this review, the data resulting from EPR–spin label spectrometry, ³¹P- and ¹³C-NMR, differential scanning calorimetry, and computer simulation of the membrane molecular dynamics are presented. The effects of selected, structurally different carotenoid species on various physical parameters of model and natural membranes are described and their relevance to protection against some environmental stresses are discussed.     

Temperature modulation and the presence of C20 fatty acids in mono‐ and digalactosyldiacylglycerol of Euglena gracilis and Lepocinclis acus: A modern interpretation of euglenid galactolipids using positive‐ion electrospray ionization/mass spectrometry

Mono‐ and digalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG and DGDG, respectively) are important galactolipids that comprise photosynthetic membranes in almost all photosynthetic organisms. Intact forms of MGDG and DGDG of Euglena gracilis and Lepocinclis acus, two example euglenids with secondary plastids of green algal origin, were elucidated with fatty acid regiochemistry via positive‐ion electrospray ionization/mass spectrometry at two growth temperatures. At 20°C, E. gracilis and L. acus produced predominantly 18:3/16:4 (sn‐1/sn‐2) MGDG, whereas at 30°C this was supplanted by 18:2/16:2 MGDG. At both temperatures were also observed a variety of other MGDG and DGDG forms, including C₂₀ fatty acid‐containing forms not expected in a green algal‐derived plastid. In addition to providing structural details of MGDG and DGDG not available in past studies, these results suggest a previously unknown relationship between these two organisms and the red algae. This study also illustrates that temperature modulation of galactolipids occurs via modification of unsaturation of both the sn‐1 and sn‐2 fatty acids; this is fundamentally different from previously published studies from our laboratory on other algal classes.