根足类原生动物半圆表壳虫壳体生物矿化特征

以有壳阿米巴类原生动物 (肉鞭门 ,叶足纲 )半圆表壳虫 (Arcellahemisphaerica)为研究对象 ,利用光镜和扫描电镜研究了其壳体生物矿化的特征。结果显示 :矿化前期 ,壳体为无色透明且柔软易变形 ;中期 ,为黄色较坚硬 ;后期 ,为褐色坚硬。通过X 射线显微分析术鉴定不同矿化时期壳体的无机元素 ,结果表明 ,与矿化前期相比矿化中期和后期壳体中Si、Mn和Fe的比例增加 ,Cl、K、S和Na的比例减少。由此推测 ,⑴半圆表壳虫矿化过程中壳体坚硬的原因是Si、Mn和Fe的比例增加导致 ,黄色是由微量Mn和Fe引起 ,褐色是高含量Mn与低含量Fe的反映 ;⑵半圆表壳虫壳体矿化以构成壳体的小泡为基本单位进行 ,Si、Mn和Fe矿化体以氧化物形式通过分子间相互作用力 ,与小泡壁上氨基酸或多肽的羟基作用 ,自组装合成。     

Dynamics of sheet nacre formation in bivalves

Formation of nacre (mother-of-pearl) is a biomineralization process of fundamental scientific as well as industrial importance. However, the dynamics of the formation process is still not understood. Here, we use scanning electron microscopy and high spatial resolution ion microprobe depth-profiling to image the full three-dimensional distribution of organic materials around individual tablets in the top-most layer of forming nacre in bivalves. Nacre formation proceeds by lateral, symmetric growth of individual tablets mediated by a growth-ring rich in organics, in which aragonite crystallizes from amorphous precursors. The pivotal role in nacre formation played by the growth-ring structure documented in this study adds further complexity to a highly dynamical biomineralization process.     

Structure of first- and second-stage mineralized elements in teeth of the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus

Microstructure of the teeth of the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus was investigated using optical microscopy, SEM (scanning electron microscopy) and SIMS (secondary ion mass spectroscopy). The study focused on the internal structure of the first-stage mineral structures of high Mg calcite (primary, secondary and carinar process plates, prisms) and on morphology of the columns of second-stage mineral (very high Mg calcite) that cement the first-stage material together. Optical micrographs under polarized light revealed contrast in the centers (midlines) of carinar process plates and in prisms in polished sections; staining of primary and carinar process plates revealed significant dye uptake at the plate centers. Demineralization with and without fixation revealed that the midlines of primary and carinar process plates (but not secondary plates) and the centers of prisms differed from the rest of the plate or prism, and SIMS showed proteins concentrated in these plate centers. SEM was used to study the morphology of columns, the fracture surfaces of mature teeth and the 3D morphology of prisms. These observations of internal structures in plates and prisms offer new insight into the mineralization process and suggest an important role for protein inclusions within the first-stage mineral. Some of the 3D structures not reported previously, such as twisted prisms and stacks of carinar process plates with nested wrinkles, may represent structural strengthening strategies.     

Physical phenomenology of phyllotaxis

We propose an evolutionary mechanism of phyllotaxis, regular arrangement of leaves on a plant stem. It is shown that the phyllotactic pattern with the Fibonacci sequence has a selective advantage, for it involves the least number of phyllotactic transitions during plant growth.     

An ultrastructural study of taxonomically significant characters of the Thraustochytriales and the Labyrinthulales

Labyrinthulales and Thraustochytriales are marine, biflagellate protists of uncertain taxonomic affinities. Initial classifications of the Thraustochytriales in the Mycota and Labyrinthulales in the Mycetozoa, Rhizopodea and algae were based on their different superficial morphologies. These differences are not paralleled at the ultrastructural level. Both orders are characterized by a unique organelle termed the sagenogenetosome, an ectoplasmic net and a wall comprised of dictyosome-derived scales. These characters are considered of taxonomic importance and support close phylogeny of the orders to each other and their removal from the Mycota, Mycetozoa and Rhizopodea.     

Practical workflow for cryo focused-ion-beam milling of tissues and cells for cryo-TEM tomography

Vitreous freezing offers a way to study cells and tissue in a near-native state by cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), which is important when structural information at the macromolecular level is required. Many cells – especially those in tissue – are too thick to study intact in the cryo-TEM. Cryo focused-ion-beam (cryo-FIB) milling is being used in a few laboratories to thin vitreously frozen specimens, thus avoiding the artifacts and difficulties of cryo-ultramicrotomy. However, the technique is challenging because of the need to avoid devitrification and frost accumulation during the entire process, from the initial step of freezing to the final step of loading the specimen into the cryo-TEM. We present a robust workflow that makes use of custom fixtures and devices that can be used for high-pressure-frozen bulk tissue samples as well as for samples frozen on TEM grids.     

Charge contrast imaging of biomaterials in a variable pressure scanning electron microscope

Charge contrast imaging (CCI) is a dynamic phenomenon recently reported in insulating and semiconducting materials imaged with low vacuum or variable pressure scanning electron microscopes (SEM). Data presented in this paper illustrates that CCI can also be applied to biominerals and biological soft-tissues and that useful and unique structural information can be obtained from routine samples. Various resin-embedded samples were considered and example images from several different biomaterials are presented. Due to the diverse nature of samples that appear to exhibit charge contrast, this imaging technique has prospective application in a wide range of biological and biomedical research. This work represents the first application of CCI to biomaterials and in particular, highlights a new method for investigating the formation, structure and growth of biominerals.     

摩鹿加云斑蛛卵袋结构与纤维组成

采用扫描电子显微镜（SEM）和氨基酸自动分析仪对摩鹿加云斑蛛Cyrtophora moluccensis卵袋的结构和组成进行了观察研究.结果表明摩鹿加云斑蛛的卵袋呈椭球状,是由多种丝腺纺出的微米与纳米级的丝纤维形成的多个覆盖层构成的,包括白色框架、军绿色与灰白色外覆盖层和白色内覆盖层3部分.卵袋框丝与典型的拖牵丝氨酸组成基本相似,丙氨酸和甘氨酸的含量最丰富,分别约占39%和33%,其次是谷氨酸、丝氨酸和脯氨酸,分别约占7.8%、5.7%和3.6%;其余卵袋丝纤维的氨基酸组成与典型的柱状腺丝相似,与卵袋框丝相比,卵袋覆盖层的丝氨基酸的含量显著增加,约占21%,同时甘氨酸和脯氨酸的含量显著减少,分别约占12%和1%,并含有更多的极性和大侧链氨基酸,其丙氨酸的含量变化不大,仍占了27%左右.根据氨基酸组成与扫描电镜的结果综合分析了不同自径丝纤维的丝腺来源.     

The effects of between-habitat dispersal rate on protist communities and metacommunities in microcosms at two spatial scales

The effect of manipulation of between-habitat dispersal rates in multiple patch systems was examined experimentally using protist communities in laboratory microcosms. Replicate landscapes of eight microcosms (patches) at two spatial scales (patch sizes) were inoculated with 13 species of protists. Dispersal was carried out by transferring a small random sample of medium and protists from one randomly selected microcosm to another within a landscape. Four dispersal rates (24, 6, 2 and 0 transfers very 3 days) were used, and the microcosms were sampled after 6 and 12 weeks. Patch size had a consistent effect on within-path (community) and within-landscape (metacommunity) diversity, both being lower in small patch systems. Higher dispersal rates had a slight effect on community and metacommunity diversity after 12 weeks, with a tendency for higher dispersal to slightly offset the rate of loss of species. Both dispersal and patch size had effects on the abundance of many individual species, though in a variety of ways. The individual species results suggest that extinction is selective with respect to both patch size and dispersal rate treatments, and may be influenced by species interactions. It seems likely that in metacommunity systems of this sort, rather than mainland-island systems, the potential effect of between-patch dispersal rate in rescuing and recolonizing where local extinctions occur may be much reduced by the effect of selective extinction, relative to that expected under the assumption of random extinction.     

In silico identification and characterization of the MAPK family members of unicellular model eukaryote Tetrahymena thermophila

The biological function and evolutionary diversity of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family have mostly been studied in fungi, animals and plants, with very limited information from lower eukaryotes. This study aimed to describe the MAPKs of unicellular Tetrahymena thermophila. Eight members of the T. thermophila MAPK (TtMPK) gene family, in addition to previously reported TtMPK1, TtMPK2 and TtMPK3, were identified bioinformatically using a T. thermophila genome database. Phylogenetic analysis assigned the TtMPKs into two major groups, ERK1/2-like (TtMPK1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) as stress-responsive MAPKs for biotic and abiotic stresses, and ERK7/8-like (TtMPK4, 10, and 11) as cell-cycle-associated protein kinases for biotic factors. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR analysis of the TtMPKs showed high mRNA expression at 30 °C; however, only TtMPK5 and TtMPK6 showed high expression at 37 °C. Osmotic shock by 100 mM NaCl only increased the expression of TtMPK2, whereas 20 mM NaCl reduced the expression of all MPKs to almost zero. The results suggested that T. thermophila MAPKs are among the closest representatives of the ancestors of the eukaryotic MAPK family. Although no functional characterization of MPKs was performed, this study is the first report of the genome-wide MAPK family in T. thermophila.     

The effects of energy input,immigration and habitat size on food web structure: a microcosm experiment

It has been hypothesised that larger habitats should support more complex food webs. We consider three mechanisms which could lead to this pattern. These are increased immigration rates, increased total productivity and spatial effects on the persistence of unstable interactions. Experiments designed to discriminate between these mechanisms were carried out in laboratory aquatic microcosm communities of protista and bacteria, by independently manipulating habitat size, total productivity and immigration rate. Larger habitats supported more complex food webs, with more species, more links per species and longer maximum and mean food chains, even in the absence of differences in total energy input. Increased immigration rate resulted in more complex food webs, but habitats with higher energy input per unit area supported less complex food webs. We conclude that spatial effects on the persistence of unstable interactions, and variation in immigration rates, are plausible mechanisms by which habitat size could affect food web structure. Variation in total productivity with habitat area seems a less likely explanation for variation in food web structure.     

Developmental biology meets materials science: Morphogenesis of biomineralized structures

Biomineralization is the process by which metazoa form hard minerals for support, defense, and feeding. The minerals so formed, e.g., teeth, bones, shells, carapaces, and spicules, are of considerable interest to chemists and materials scientists. The cell biology underlying biomineralization is not well understood. The study of the formation of mineralized structures in developing organisms offers opportunities for understanding some intriguing aspects of cell and developmental biology. Five examples of biomineralization are presented: (1) the formation of siliceous spicules and frustules in sponges and diatoms, respectively; (2) the structure of skeletal spicules composed of amorphous calcium carbonate in some tunicates; (3) the secretion of the prism and nacre of some molluscan shells; (4) the development of skeletal spicules of sea urchin embryos; and (5) the formation of enamel of vertebrate teeth. Some speculations on the cellular and molecular mechanisms that support biomineralization, and their evolutionary origins, are discussed.     

A genome-wide analysis of biomineralization-related proteins in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus

Biomineralization, the biologically controlled formation of mineral deposits, is of widespread importance in biology, medicine, and engineering. Mineralized structures are found in most metazoan phyla and often have supportive, protective, or feeding functions. Among deuterostomes, only echinoderms and vertebrates produce extensive biomineralized structures. Although skeletons appeared independently in these two groups, ancestors of the vertebrates and echinoderms may have utilized similar components of a shared genetic "toolkit" to carry out biomineralization. The present study had two goals. First, we sought to expand our understanding of the proteins involved in biomineralization in the sea urchin, a powerful model system for analyzing the basic cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie this process. Second, we sought to shed light on the possible evolutionary relationships between biomineralization in echinoderms and vertebrates. We used several computational methods to survey the genome of the purple sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus for gene products involved in biomineralization. Our analysis has greatly expanded the collection of biomineralization-related proteins. We have found that these proteins are often members of small families encoded by genes that are clustered in the genome. Most of the proteins are sea urchin-specific; that is, they have no apparent homologues in other invertebrate deuterostomes or vertebrates. Similarly, many of the vertebrate proteins that mediate mineral deposition do not have counterparts in the S. purpuratus genome. Our findings therefore reveal substantial differences in the primary sequences of proteins that mediate biomineral formation in echinoderms and vertebrates, possibly reflecting loose constraints on the primary structures of the proteins involved. On the other hand, certain cellular and molecular processes associated with earlier events in skeletogenesis appear similar in echinoderms and vertebrates, leaving open the possibility of deeper evolutionary relationships.     

横纹金蛛卵袋结构与纤维组成

采用SEM和氨基酸自动分析仪对横纹金蛛(Argiope bruennichi)卵袋的超微结构与氨基酸组成进行了观察研究.结果表明,横纹金蛛卵袋呈封闭的葫形,是由多种丝腺纺出的微米与纳米级的丝纤维形成的多个覆盖层构成,具有多层复杂结构,从外向内分别为:框架、卵袋覆盖帽、外覆盖层和内覆盖层、卵块覆盖帽、卵块包裹层,其中外覆...     

棒络新妇卵袋结构与组成

采用SEM和氨基酸自动分析仪对棒络新妇 Nephila clavata 卵袋进行了结构观察和氨基酸组成分析.结果 表明棒络新妇的卵袋呈开放的网筛椭球状,结构简单,分为框架(大壶状腺丝)、金黄色或白色外层(主要含大壶状腺丝)和白色内层(主要含柱状腺丝)三部分,内外层都是由大(approx. 6～13 μm)、中(1.25～3.0 μm)、小(approx. 0.7～0.8 μm)直径的丝纤维构成.卵袋框丝和外层丝的氨基酸组成相似,甘氨酸(分别占22.9%和32.5%)和丙氨酸(占24%左右)的含量最丰富,其次是谷氨酸(占16.5%左右)和丝氨酸(分别占8.3%和3%),苏氨酸含量低(分别占2.12%和0.68%).与外层丝相比,卵袋内层丝纤维丝氨酸和苏氨酸的含量显著增加,分别为19.1%和6.11%左右,同时甘氨酸的含量显著减少,为7.2%左右,谷氨酸和脯氨酸的含量较低.大小侧链氨基酸比值(LC:SC)分析表明卵袋内层丝(1.03)﹥卵袋框丝(0.85)＞卵袋外层丝(0.66)≈拖牵丝(0.64)＞蚕丝(0.34),似乎表明卵袋框丝是不同于同纺自大壶状腺的典型蛛丝(拖牵丝)的新型蛛丝纤维.卵袋内层的主要构成成分是另一种具有截然不同氨基酸组成的柱状腺丝.棒络新妇能调节卵袋层丝的颜色、直径、丝纤维的组成及覆盖层的氨基酸组成,使卵袋获得各方面最优化的功能,为卵或若蛛提供支持和保护.     

悦目金蛛卵袋的结构与组成

采用SEM和氨基酸自动分析仪对悦目金蛛(Argiope amoena)卵袋的结构、纤维组成和覆盖层的氨基酸组成进行了观察研究.结果表明悦目金蛛卵袋呈封闭的倒三角形,是由多种丝腺纺出的丝纤维形成的多个覆盖层构成的,从外向内分别为:金黄色大壶状腺框架丝,灰绿色、浅棕色、白色外覆盖层和棕色内覆盖层,其中外覆盖层是由6根大直径(约4.8-6.8 μm) 柱状腺丝纤维和一些小直径(约0.26-0.76 μm)纤维混合成的基本纤维束单元所折叠成的片层丝被构成的,小直径丝纤维的数量从灰绿色丝被(外)到白色丝被(内)逐渐增加,而内覆盖层仅仅是由6根大直径(约5.20 μm)柱状腺丝纤维构成的基本纤维束单元折叠而成.卵袋外覆盖层丝(白色绒状纤维除外)的甘氨酸、丙氨酸和丝氨酸等氨基酸的百分含量分别介于卵袋内覆盖层丝和葡萄状腺丝相对应氨基酸的百分含量之间,这一数据支持Foradori等关于卵袋小直径丝纤维是由葡萄状腺纺出的推论.悦目金蛛能调节卵袋层丝的颜色、直径、覆盖层丝纤维和氨基酸的组成,使卵袋获得各方面最优化的功能,为卵或若蛛提供支持和保护.     

Coccolith crystals ofPleurochrysis carterae: Crystallographic faces, organization, and development

Summary The crystallographic and morphological configuration of the mineral ring associated with the coccoliths ofPleurochrysis carterae was determined by transmission electron microscopy and electron diffraction. Mature Pleurochrysis coccoliths consist of an oval organic base plate, a distal rim of interlocking calcite crystals, and a narrow ribbon of organic material which tethers the mineral ring to the base plate. Crystals of two distinct forms (R and V units) alternate about the rim in a quasi regular manner; their crystallographicc-axes are aligned parallel to and inclined about 63° to the coccolith plane, respectively. The mineral ring has four platelike elements: the distal-shield and outer-tube elements which form the V unit, and the proximal-shield and inner-tube elements which form the R units. The platy surfaces of both tube elements correspond to the common (10 4) rhombohedral faces of calcite, and the plates of the proximal-shield element are prismatic (2 0) faces. The plates of the distal-shield element are rather curved and their orientation does not correspond to a favorable calcite face; however, for convenience they are described as approximately ( 108) faces, faces which rarely, if ever, develop in inorganic sources of calcite. During coccolith development the earliest habits observed for both V and R units correspond to rectangular parallelepipeds. Outgrowth from the initial V unit begins by expansion of (10 4) faces which form the platy surfaces of the outer-tube element. Throughout this period of development the mineral ring is flexible, at least in an isolated state. Subsequent outgrowth of the inner-tube and proximal-shield elements from the initial R unit produces a rigid interlocking ring. The unusual ( 108) faces of the distal-shield element develop after the crystals are locked in place. Organic structures in intimate association with the mineral phase during its nucleation and growth include the coccolith ribbon, the calcium-polyanion particles, and the membrane of the coccolith vesicle. These structures are described in reference to their putative functions in regulating the development of V and R units.Abbreviation PS polysaccharide