A biochemical study of the effects of cAMP pulses on aggregateless mutants of Dictyostelium discoideum.

We have examined the ability of six aggregateless mutants to express the biochemical parameters involved in the production of the chemotactic signal, cAMP pulses. The mutants are representative of the three groups which have been defined previously in terms of the ability of applied cAMP pulses to induce all, or part, of the developmental cycle of nonaggregating strains [Darmon, M., Brachet, P., and Pereira da Silva, L. (1975). Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA72, 3163–3166; Darmon et al., 1977]. Strains were monitored for adenylate cyclase, cellular and extracellular phosphodiesterase activities, the levels of cAMP binding sites, and the extracellular phosphodiesterase inhibitor. The ability of applied cAMP pulses to alter any of these parameters was also examined. The results indicate that adenylate cyclase can exist in active and inactive forms and that applied cAMP pulses effect the transition of the enzyme to its active state. Applied cAMP pulses are also shown to induce the adenylate cyclase activity of two strains and inhibit the production of the phosphodiesterase inhibitor. The data are discussed in terms of the possible sequence of events involved in the differentiation of cells to aggregation competence.     

Cell differentiation in the absence of intracellular cyclic AMP pulses in Dictyostelium discoideum

Repeated additions of cyclic AMP to a morphogenetic mutant of Dictyostelium discoideum, agip 53, induced cell differentiation to the aggregation competent state as previously reported [Darmon, Brachet, and Pereira da Silva (1975). Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA72, 3163–3166]. Cyclic AMP additions elicited transient increases of the intracellular cyclic GMP concentration but no significant increases of the intracellular cyclic AMP concentration. These results suggest that transient increases of the intracellular cyclic AMP concentration are not necessary for cell differentiation. Agip 53 seems to be unable to relay cyclic AMP signals. A defect in the receptor-mediated activation of adenylate cyclase could be the biochemical basis of the mutant phenotype of agip 53.     

Dictyostelium aggregate-less mutant plasma membranes

This investigation concerns a freeze-fracture study of the plasma membranes of aggregate-less mutants 67 and 20-2 derived from the wild-type slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum V12/M2. These mutants cannot respond chemotactically to cAMP and consequently are incapable of normal fruiting body formation. Freeze-fracture studies of Agg 67 and 20-2 amoebae revealed that the average diameters of the plasma membrane particles were almost identical to the wild-type strain V12/M2 vegetative amoebae. Although exposure to cAMP effected a 1.4 × increase in average particle size in the V12/M2 amoebae membranes, those in the mutant cell types did not increase in average diameters. The state of the plasma membrane and its regulatory role in the cell cycle and cell differentiation is discussed.     

Conditions that elevate intracellular cyclic AMP levels promote spore formation in Dictyostelium

We have been using sporogenous mutants of Dictyostelium discoideum strain V12M2 to study regulation of cell fate during terminal differentiation of spores and stalk cells. Analyses of intracellular cAMP accumulation, cAMP secretion, cAMP binding to cell surface receptors, and chemotactic sensitivity to exogenous cAMP during aggregation showed that all of these functions were identical in V12M2 and HB200, a sporogenous mutant. We used several methods of altering intracellular cAMP levels in HB200 cells to test the hypothesis that intracellular cAMP levels affect cell fate. First, HB200 amoebae were treated with 5 mM caffeine for 4 h during growth, washed, and allowed to develop in the absence of caffeine. Treated cells had normal levels of intracellular cAMP and adenylate cyclase activities at the beginning of differentiation; by 6 h development, they contained two to three times more intracellular cAMP and two times more GTP-dependent adenylate cyclase activity than untreated cells. However, their level of basal Mn++-dependent adenylate cyclase activity was the same as untreated controls. Thus, treatment of growing HB200 amoebae with caffeine for only 4 h leads to hyperinduction of a GTP-dependent regulator (or inhibition of a negative regulator) of adenylate cyclase during subsequent differentiation, without induction of basal activity. The fraction of amoebae forming spores increased twofold when HB200 amoebae were treated with caffeine during growth. Spore (but not stalk cell) differentiation by such treated cells was blocked by inhibitors of cAMP accumulation. Second, cells grown on nutrient agar accumulated higher levels of intracellular cAMP and formed more spores in vitro than cells grown in shaken suspension.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Induction of fruiting in two aggregateless mutants of Dictyostelium discoideum

Five general groups of morphogenetically aberrant mutants of Dictyostelium discoideum were isolated. Each group of mutants was characterized either by the absence of any fruiting structures or by the formation of abnormal fructifications. Among these developmental mutants were two aggregateless isolates, Agg⁻-1 and Agg⁻-2, that could be induced to form normal sorocarps under certain conditions. Sorocarps of the normal D. discoideum type were formed when growing myxamoebae from either of these mutants were allowed to come in contact with myxamoebae of the other mutants, wild-type D. discoideum, D. purpureum, or D. mucoroides. No sorocarps were formed when myxamoebae of Agg⁻-1 and Agg⁻-2 were paired. These two aggregateless mutants, while incapable of aggregating or fruiting when cultivated singly with Escherichia coli B/r on a glucose-salts medium, formed normal fruiting structures after being freed of what appeared to be a product of bacterial growth. The spores produced by Agg⁻-1 and Agg⁻-2 myxamoebae again gave rise to aggregateless clones of the original parental types.     

Reduced cAMP secretion in Dictyostelium discoideum mutant HB3

Extracellular cAMP induces the intracellular synthesis and subsequent secretion of cAMP in Dictyostelium discoideum (relay). cAMP relay was strongly diminished in mutant HB3 which shows abnormal development by making very small fruiting bodies. Extracellular cAMP binds to receptors on the surface of mutant cells and induces the rapid activation of adenylate cyclase. Intracellular cAMP rises to a concentration as high as that in wild-type cells but only a very small amount of cAMP is secreted. cAMP secretion in wild-type cells starts immediately after cAMP production, and is proportional to the intracellular cAMP concentration. In the mutant cells cAMP secretion starts a few minutes after cAMP production; by that time most of the intracellular cAMP is already degraded by phosphodiesterase and little cAMP is available for secretion. We conclude that mutant HB3 has a defect in the mechanism by which Dictyostelium cells secrete cAMP.     

Apparent Positive Cooperativity at a Surface cAMP Receptor in Dictyostelium

In the large species of the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium , cell aggregation is regulated by extracellular cAMP. During aggregation, cAMP is released in pulses from cells in the aggregation centers and these rhythmic signals are propagated through the population by a signal relay system. In addition to triggering the relay response, the pulsatile signals also regulate the chemotactic movement of the cells and early cell differentiation. These different cellular responses to exogenous cAMP are thought to be mediated via cAMP receptors, which appear on the cell surface shortly after starvation.
Using a sensitive assay, the equilibrium binding properties of these receptors were analyzed at low cAMP concentrations. As reported earlier, Scatchard plots of cAMP binding to preaggregative amoebae of D. discoideum strain NP187 in the concentration range 2–500 nM were curvilinear suggesting either receptor heterogeneity or negative cooperative interactions. However, at cAMP concentrations below approximately 1.5 nM, the affinity of the receptors was found to decline as a function of decreasing receptor occupancy. This apparent positive cooperativity was observed with binding sites on crude plasma membranes as well as on intact cells, and it occurred at both 0°C and 22°C. Moreover, apparent positive cooperativity was a property of the receptors on all strains of D. discoideum examined and on one strain of D. purpureum . Unlike preaggregative cells, receptors on postaggregative cells often lacked this property.
The lowest concentration of cAMP pulses that can appreciably stimulate membrane differentiation in strain NP187 was found to be 0.15–1.5 nM. Since similar concentrations of exogenous cAMP have been reported to trigger minimal chemotactic and relay responses in D. discoideum , the apparent positive cooperative behavior of the cAMP receptor might function to generate a steep cellular response threshold.     

Non-chemotactic Dictyostelium discoideum mutants with altered cGMP signal transduction

Folic acid and cAMP are chemoattractants in Dictyostelium discoideum, which bind to different surface receptors. The signal is transduced from the receptors via different G proteins into a common pathway which includes guanylyl cyclase and acto-myosin. To investigate this common pathway, ten mutants which do not react chemotactically to both cAMP and folic acid were isolated with a simple new chemotactic assay. Genetic analysis shows that one of these mutants (KI-10) was dominant; the other nine mutants were recessive, and comprise nine complementation groups. In wild-type cells, the chemoattractants activate adenylyl cyclase, phospholipase C, and guanylyl cyclase in a transient manner. In mutant cells the formation of cAMP and IP3 were generally normal, whereas the cGMP response was altered in most of the ten mutants. Particularly, mutant KI-8 has strongly reduced basal guanylyl cyclase activity; the enzyme is present in mutant KI-10, but can not be activated by cAMP or folic acid. The cGMP response of five other mutants is altered in either magnitude, dose dependency, or kinetics. These observations suggest that the second messenger cGMP plays a key role in chemotaxis in Dictyostelium.     

The control of chemotactic cell movement during Dictyostelium morphogenesis

Differential cell movement is an important mechanism in the development and morphogenesis of many organisms. In many cases there are indications that chemotaxis is a key mechanism controlling differential cell movement. This can be particularly well studied in the starvation-induced multicellular development of the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum. Upon starvation, up to 10(5) individual amoebae aggregate to form a fruiting body The cells aggregate by chemotaxis in response to propagating waves of cAMP, initiated by an aggregation centre. During their chemotactic aggregation the cells start to differentiate into prestalk and prespore cells, precursors to the stalk and spores that form the fruiting body. These cells enter the aggregate in a random order but then sort out to form a simple axial pattern in the slug. Our experiments strongly suggest that the multicellular aggregates (mounds) and slugs are also organized by propagating cAMP waves and, furthermore, that cell-type-specific differences in signalling and chemotaxis result in cell sorting, slug formation and movement.     

Dictyostelium discoideum: a new host model system for intracellular pathogens of the genus Legionella

The soil amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum is a haploid eukaryote that, upon starvation, aggregates and enters a developmental cycle to produce fruiting bodies. In this study, we infected single-cell stages of D. discoideum with different Legionella species. Intracellular growth of Legionella in this new host system was compared with their growth in the natural host Acanthamoeba castellanii . Transmission electron microscopy of infected D. discoideum cells revealed that legionellae reside within the phagosome. Using confocal microscopy, it was observed that replicating, intracellular, green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged legionellae rarely co-localized with fluorescent antibodies directed against the lysosomal protein DdLIMP of D. discoideum . This indicates that the bacteria inhibit the fusion of phagosomes and lysosomes in this particular host system. In addition, Legionella infection of D. discoideum inhibited the differentiation of the host into the multicellular fruiting stage. Co-culture studies with profilin-minus D. discoideum mutants and Legionella resulted in higher rates of infection when compared with infections of wild-type amoebae. Because the amoebae are amenable to genetic manipulation as a result of their haploid genome and because a number of cellular markers are available, we show for the first time that D. discoideum is a valuable model system for studying intracellular pathogenesis of microbial pathogens.     

Localization and levels of cyclic AMP during development of Dictyostelium discoideum

Cyclic AMP functions as the chemotactic signal during aggregation of amoebae of the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum. Evidence suggests that cAMP also acts as a regulatory molecule during Dictyostelium multicellular differentiation. We have used ultramicrotechniques and a sensitive radioimmunoassay to measure the levels of cAMP within the culmination stage individual. We show that there is a peak of cAMP at the culmination stage of development and that in the individual at this stage the molecule is localized in a gradient within the spore mass.     

Comparative mutagenic effects of ethyl methane-sulfonate, n-methyl-n'-nitro-n-nitrosoguanidine, ultraviolet radiation and caffeine on Dictyostelium discoideum.

A high frequency of morphogenetic mutants of Dictyostelium discoideum can be induced by treatment with MNNG under conditions which result in relatively low cell killing. Six temperature-sensitive growth mutants induced by this treatment were isolated by replica plating. Among these, five showed spontaneous reversion rates of 10(-4) to 10(-5). The mutagenic activity of ems, measured for the induction of both morphogenetic and temperature-sensitive mutants, was weaker than that of MNNG and UV radiation. High frequencies of morphogenetic mutants were obtained only with doses of UV irradiation that resulted in high killing of cells or spores. Caffeine, at concentrations that slightly decreased the growth rate of amoebae in axenic medium, induced morphogenetic defects and also enhanced the mutagenic effect of UV irradiation. However, all the aggregateless clones derived from caffeine treatment that were studied reverted to the wild-type phenotype after a variable number of clonal re-isolations.     

Streamers: chemotactic mutants of Dictyostelium discoideum with altered cyclic GMP metabolism

Mutants of Dictyostelium discoideum that developed huge aggregation streams in expanding clones were investigated using optical and biochemical techniques. Representatives of the six complementation groups previously identified (stmA-stmF) were found to be similar to the parental wild-type strain XP55 in both the extent and timing of their ability to initiate and relay chemotactic signals and in the formation of cyclic AMP receptors and phosphodiesterases. The mutants differed from the wild-type in producing an abnormal chemotactic (movement) response visible using both dark-field optics with synchronously aggregating amoebae on solid substrata and light scattering techniques with oxygenated cell suspensions. Mutants of complementation group stmF showed chemotactic movement responses lasting up to 520 s, rather than 100 s as seen in the parental and other strains. Measurements of cyclic GMP formed intracellularly in response to chemotactic pulses of cyclic AMP in stmF mutants showed that abnormally high concentrations of this nucleotide were formed within 10 s and were not rapidly degraded. A causal correlation between defective cyclic GMP metabolism and the altered chemotactic response is suggested, and a model is proposed that accounts for the formation of huge aggregation streams in clones of these mutants.U     

G alpha 3 regulates the cAMP signaling system in Dictyostelium.

The Dictyostelium discoideum developmental program is initiated by starvation and its progress depends on G-protein-regulated transmembrane signaling. Disruption of the Dictyostelium G-protein alpha-subunit G alpha 3 (g alpha 3-) blocks development unless the mutant is starved in the presence of artificial cAMP pulses. The function of G alpha 3 was investigated by examining the expression of several components of the cAMP transmembrane signaling system in the g alpha 3- mutant. cAMP receptor 1 protein, cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase, phosphodiesterase inhibitor, and aggregation-stage adenylyl cyclase mRNA expression were absent or greatly reduced when cells were starved without exogenously applied pulses of cAMP. However, cAMP receptor 1 protein and aggregation-stage adenylyl cyclase mRNA expression were restored by starving the g alpha 3- cells in the presence of exogenous cAMP pulses. Adenylyl cyclase activity was also reduced in g alpha 3- cells starved without exogenous cAMP pulses compared with similarly treated wild-type cells but was elevated to a level twofold greater than wild-type cells in g alpha 3- cells starved in the presence of exogenous cAMP pulses. These results suggest that G alpha 3 is essential in early development because it controls the expression of components of the transmembrane signaling system.     

A pleiotropic defect in cAMP-regulated gene expression in the Dictyostelium agg- mutant synag 7

During differentiation of Dictyostelium discoideum, cAMP functions as a diffusible, extracellular signal to direct chemotaxis and regulate developmental gene expression. The availability of signal-transduction mutants of Dictyostelium now makes it feasible to pursue a genetic analysis of cAMP signaling. The synag 7 mutant is defective in receptor-mediated adenylate cyclase stimulation and cannot relay a cAMP signal. To further characterize this mutant, mRNA levels of several cAMP-regulated genes were measured during development. cAMP-regulated gene expression was found to be dramatically altered in synag 7:several different genes which require cAMP for expression in wild-type cells were induced in synag 7 in the absence of cAMP. In addition, the gene-encoding discoidin I, which is normally expressed in starved cells and repressed by cAMP, is expressed at very low levels in starved synag 7 cells, possibly due to precocious repression. These results suggest that a pleiotropic regulator of cAMP-regulated gene expression is uncoupled from its normal controls during development in synag 7.     

Localization of adenylate cyclase during development of Dictyostelium discoideum

Cyclic AMP is known to function as the chemotactic signal during aggregation of single-celled amoebae of the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum. Evidence from several laboratories has accumulated suggesting that cAMP also acts as a regulatory molecule during Dictyostelium multicellular differentiation. We have used ultramicrotechniques and a sensitive radioimmunoassay in the localization of adenylate cyclase, the cAMP synthetic enzyme, during the development of Dictyostelium. We demonstrate that adenylate cyclase activity is localized in the prespore cells of the culminating individual with no activity detectable in the prestalk region. We show that this lack of activity in the stalk may be due to a masking by an endogenous inhibitor of the enzyme. Within the spore mass we found an increasing gradient of enzyme activity toward the base. These data, along with that from the localization of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase, indicate that an enzymatic potential exists for the creation of cAMP gradients during development in the organism. Such a gradient may provide positional information necessary to direct the terminal differentiation of spore and stalk cells.     

Induction of Cell Differentiation of Isolated Cells in Dictyostelium discoideum by Low Extracellular pH

In Dictyostelium discoideum , the formation of multicellular masses is necessary for cell differentiation. However, the present study shows that amoebae of strain V12M2 efficiently differentiate to prespore or stalk cells under submerged incubation in a simple medium containing cAMP and salts without cell contact, only if the pH of the medium is maintained at acidic values; differentiation scarcely occurs in the neutral pH range. The optimum pH values for prespore and stalk cell differentiation are 5.1 and 4.5, respectively. In addition to the extracellular pH, Mg ions and the concentration of cAMP also affect the choice of the differentiation pathway. The time courses of differentiation of both cell types under optimum conditions are also presented.     

Chemotactic response of wild-type and aggregation-defective mutants of Polysphondylium violaceum

Abstract. The aggregation-specific chemoattractant for Polysphondylium violaceum is N-propionyl-γ-L-glutamyl-L-ornithine-δ-lactam ethyl ester, or glorin. Wild-type amoebae allowed to develop in liquid culture acquire increased ability to respond to glorin shortly after starvation, i.e., just prior to the time they become aggregation competent. Similarly, as development proceeds, the amoebae show decreased sensitivity to folic acid, but they show almost no response to cyclic AMP at any time during their development in liquid culture. The optimum concentrations for the chemotactic response are 10^-8 M for glorin and 10^-5–10^-6 M for folic acid. A class of aggregation-defective mutants, aggA , will not aggregate in the absence of an excreted pheromone, D factor. During development in liquid culture in the presence or absence of D factor, these aggA mutants show a chemotactic response similar to that of wild-type amoebae to folic acid and glorin. However, D factor does enhance the chemotactic response of aggA mutants to glorin. In the absence of D factor, mutant amoebae will form fruiting bodies if exposed to a chemotactic gradient of either folic acid or glorin. Under these conditions, the mutant amoebae circumvent the requirement for D factor in order to develop.