萼花臂尾轮虫有性生殖、种群增长和休眠卵产量间的关系

利用种群指数增长和Logistic增长模型,通过计算机模拟研究了萼花臂尾轮虫有性生殖发生的频率,后代中的混交雌体发率对种群增长和休眠卵产量的影响。在所模拟的参数范围内,随有性生殖发生频率由100％减小到20％,获得了大休眠卵产量所需的混交雌体百分率由9％增大到69％,随密度制约作用的增大（环境容纳量K值由1000减小到100）,该混交雌体百分率由18％增大到69％,休眠卵产量由1072．10降低至133．67,种群的内禀增长率与获得最大休眠卵产量所需的混交雌体百分率间呈曲线相关。当有性生殖发生得越频繁,种群增长所受的密度制约作用较小时,后代中10％－30％的个体为混交雌体时的种群中休眠卵产量较大。     

Effect of incubation and preservation on resting egg hatching and mixis in the derived clones of the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis

The marine rotifer Brachionus plicatilis typicus (Clone 8105A, Univ. of Tokyo) was cultured in 500 ml beakers to form resting eggs. Tetraselmis tetrathele was used as a culture food. Just after formation, resting eggs were exposed to various temperature (5–25 °C) and light regimes (24L: OD and OL : 24D). When eggs were exposed to light just after formation, the eggs hatched sporadically over a month. No hatching was observed for six months when eggs were preserved under dark conditions regardless of the temperature. These eggs hatched simultaneously after being exposed to light and eggs preserved at 5 °C showed twice as high hatching rate (40%) as that of eggs preserved at 15–25 °C (24%). Clones from resting eggs that were kept under different temperature and light regimes were reared individually to the third generation. Incubation at 25 °C with lighting produced the highest (5.4% and 5.2 %) rate of mictic females during their 2nd and 3rd generations, respectively. The lowest rates (0 and 1.5%) were found when the eggs were kept at 5 °C in total darkness for six months. A lower rate of amictic female production was found in clones with higher rates of mixis.     

Size variation in Brachionus plicatilis resting eggs

The effect of temperature and salinity on resting egg size of two Brachionus plicatilis (Rotifers) clones was investigated. Clones were selected according to their different behaviour in laying resting eggs: one clone ejects them, whereas they remain inside the females body in the other clone. The difference in resting eggs size between the two clones is noticeable, although the difference is not as great as that between female body size. An important temperature-salinity interaction on resting egg size has been observed. The general inverse relationship between size and temperature is only true at lower temperatures. At high temperatures size varies around the mean although could be greater than at intermediate temperatures. This is more evident at the intermediate salinity tested which is considered to be the closest to the optimum in our experiments. This pattern of variation suggests that mean size is bigger than expected, in relation to temperature and salinity, when these factors have values close to the extremes of their range, normally found in nature, and to which adaptative mechanisms can evolve. Size is bigger at the salinity — temperature low - low and high - high combinations which are the most commonly found in the temperate environments.     

Effect of food concentration on the production and viability of resting eggs of the rotifer Brachionus: implications for the timing of sexual reproduction

1. Life‐table experiments with Brachionus calyciflorus test several hypotheses related to the idea that sexual reproduction in monogonont rotifers should occur when food resources are favourable. 2. The food concentration necessary for a fertilised mictic female to produce one phenotypically normal resting egg was higher than that for an amictic female to produce one daughter. At the lowest concentration of Cryptomonas erosa (1.25 × 10³ cells mL^?1), the lifetime fecundity of these two types of females was 0.9 and 1.4, respectively. 3. The lifetime fecundity of both fertilised mictic females and amictic females increased with food concentration to 3.4 resting eggs and 15.2 daughters female^?1, respectively. The approach to maximal fecundity with increasing food concentration was more rapid for fertilised mictic females, such that their lifetime fecundity relative to that of amictic females gradually decreased from 0.64 (at 1.25 × 10³ C. erosa mL^?1) to 0.22 (at 2.5 × 10⁴ C. erosa mL^?1). 4. The probability of a fertilised mictic female producing one or more abnormal resting eggs during her lifetime was high (approximately 75%). The mean proportion of abnormal eggs produced per female varied among the different food‐concentration treatments (26–38%) but was not higher at the low food concentrations. 5. The proportion of normal resting eggs that hatched was high (51–71%); those produced at low food concentrations were no less likely to hatch than those produced at high food concentrations. No abnormal resting eggs hatched. 6. The probability of a fertilised mictic female producing an abnormal resting egg increased rapidly with her age at all food concentrations. The probability of a normal resting egg hatching declined with maternal age at the low food concentration in one of two experiments. 7. The results support the idea that induction of mictic females should occur when food resources are good. Coincidence of sexual reproduction with low food availability risks low production of resting eggs for several reasons. Population size may be small, with a low probability of encounters between young mictic females and males, and fertilised mictic females may be unable to mature and produce resting eggs.     

A model evaluating the contribution of environmental factors to the production of resting eggs in the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis

The production of resting eggs by the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis was tested at four salinities (9, 18, 27 and 36\%) and six concentrations of the alga Chlorella stigmatophora (0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 and 6.0 × 10⁶ cells ml^–1). The results indicated that resting eggs were produced only at two salinities (9\% and 18\%) and that their number was affected by the amount of food provided. A model consisting of two generalized linear sub-models was built to evaluate the contribution of each of the tested food concentrations at the two salinities. The sub-models were used to distinguish between two different components of resting egg production: one related to the presence or absence of resting egg production, and the other to the number of resting eggs produced, given that production had occurred. Besides indicating the best combination of salinity and food concentration for obtaining large numbers of resting eggs, they revealed the contribution of internal population factors that were not controlled in the course of the experiment. The model identified the positive contribution of the relative number of females to males, and the negative association between high rotifer densities and the production of resting eggs. The results of the present study help in defining the optimal conditions for mass production of resting eggs, which are of potential importance in aquaculture.Deceased, September 1991.     

种群起始密度对萼花臂尾轮虫休眠卵形成的影响

应用群体累积培养法,研究了种群起始密度对萼花臂尾轮虫休眠卵的形成及之相关的混交雌体百分率和受精率的影响,结果表明,在连续１１ｄ的培养中,轮虫休眠卵的产量和形成效率以及种群中的平均混交雌体百分率以种群起始密度为１．０－１０．０ｉｎｄ．ｍｌ＾－１组最大,２０．０ｉｎｄ．ｍｌ＾－１组次之,５０．０ｉｎｄ．ｍｌ＾－１组最小,各组间的平均混交雌体受精率则无显著差异,对轮虫休卢卵最大形成效率及其出现的时间以及     

Structural differences between the resting eggs of Brachionus plicatilis and Brachionus rotundiformis (Rotifers, Brachionidae): an electron microscopic study

Surface topography and layering of resting eggs of Brachionus plicatilis and B. rotundiformis are described, based on scanning and transmission electron microscope studies. In B. plicatilis, the resting eggs are spherical with smooth wavy ridges on the surface, whereas these ridges are small and condensed in B. rotundiformis. The distribution of pores on the egg surface clearly distinguishes the two species.Ultrastructure of the egg membranes of both species varies greatly with regard to size, shape and sculpturing of each membrane. The alveolar and dense sublayers, which constitute the outer egg membrane (S1) are very thick (10–12 µm) in B. rotundiformis compared to B. plicatilis (4–5 µm). Thus, each species has a characteristic surface and membrane architecture. The functional roles of these membranes, during the resting phase of rotifers, are discussed.     

温度和食物浓度对大型溞Daphnia magna种群动态和两性生殖的影响

在4个温度(15、20、25、30℃)和3个食物浓度(1×104,1×105,5×105 cells ml-1)下研究了大型溞(Daphnia magna)淮河种群的动态和两性生殖,结果表明:(1)在实验初期,大型溞种群密度不断增加,达到最大值后种群密度呈现缓慢下降或趋于稳定的趋势.除15℃下最大瞬时增长率(1.36 d-1)出现在中食物浓度组外,20℃(1.51 d-1)、25℃(1.39 d-1)、30℃(0.69 d-1)下的最大瞬时增长率均出现在高食物浓度组.(2)相同温度下,食物浓度与大型溞最大种群密度间存在显著正相关(p<0.01).(3)相同食物浓度下,随温度升高,大型溞首次产幼溞时间(5～21d)和到达最大种群密度的时间(15～29d)缩短,首次抱卵时的体长(1.75～2.67 mm)减少.(4)在较低的温度和中食物浓度组下,大型溞产生了较多的休眠卵或卵鞍(15℃:(16.7±2.5) ind. 和20℃:(18.3±3.8) ind.);30℃下没有出现休眠卵或卵鞍.除15℃、中食物浓度组外,其它实验组均产生雄体.实验25d后,雄体密度与种群密度呈显著的相关性(30℃:p<0.05;15～25℃:p<0.01).(5)本研究结果暗示大型溞休眠卵的形成受温度、食物浓度和种群密度的共同影响,且较低的温度是大型溞休眠卵形成的主要诱因.     

Hatching of Brachionus Rubens O. F. Muller resting eggs (Rotifers)

After a dormant period at low temperature (5°C) and darkness, hatching of Brachionus rubens resting eggs is induced by an increase of temperature (10–22°C) in presence of light.     

Effect of diazinon on life stages and resting egg hatchability of rotifer Brachionus plicatilis

The effects of organophosphate pesticide, diazinon, on life history parameters and hatchability of resting eggs of rotifer Brachionus plicalitis were assessed. Newly hatched (<1 h-old) neonates were individually cultured in six varying concentrations (0/control, 0.1, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0 and 10.0 mg/l) of diazinon. The life history parameters such as time (h) the rotifers bear first egg and release first neonate, reproductive period, net reproductive rate, mixis, intrinsic rate of population increase, and life span were evaluated. Results showed that among the life history parameters, the time the rotifers took to release neonates is the most sensitive, giving the lowest EC₅₀ value of 1.24 mg/l. The fecundity of maternal females, amictic and mictic daughters was also investigated. Rotifers exposed to 10.0 mg/l produced significantly fewer amictic daughters, and at this concentration, rotifers did not produce any mictic daughter. At 5.0 mg/l, the number of male offspring was significantly lower than the control. Furthermore, the hatchability of resting eggs produced by the rotifers was evaluated when exposed to diazinon: from birth until they produced resting eggs (early development); during late developmental stage of resting eggs (before diapause); and during diapausing stage. The hatchability of the resting eggs was not affected when exposure was timed at late developmental and diapausing stages. Overall results showed that even though amictic females reproduced normally in the presence of low-concentration of diazinon, sexual reproduction is severely affected, especially the hatchability of resting eggs when the exposure was timed on its early developmental stages. Guest editors: S. S. S. Sarma, R. D. Gulati, R. L. Wallace, S. Nandini, H. J. Dumont & R. Rico-Martínez Advances in Rotifer Research     

Low crowding threshold for induction of sexual reproduction and diapause in a Patagonian rotifer

1. This study investigates the basis and ecological significance of the extremely high propensity for mixis (sexual reproduction) observed in laboratory populations of Brachionus calyciflorus from a temporary pond in Patagonia. 2. Experiments with stem females hatched from resting eggs showed that these females were exclusively amictic but produced mictic daughters even at very low population densities. In six experiments, newly hatched stem females were cultured individually in different volumes (1.5, 12, 40 and 150 mL). The percentage of mictic daughters (mixis ratio) was high in the smaller volumes (e.g. 44–83% in 1.5 mL) and lower in the largest volume (6–21% in 150 mL). A regression analysis combining the data from these experiments showed a highly significant decrease in mixis ratio with volume and indicated that the lowest population density at which mixis still occurs (mixis threshold) would be 3.4 females L^?1 (95% CL 2.9–4.0 females L^?1). This value is considerably lower than mixis thresholds for other rotifers (25–250 females L^?1 for many species and 9000–477 000 females L^?1 for some Spanish Brachionus plicatilis). 3. In three additional experiments, stem females and their amictic daughters were cultured individually in 150 mL. The percentage of mictic daughters produced by these two generations of females was not significantly different, showing that the mixis response to crowding is not inhibited in the stem‐female generation. 4. Laboratory experiments showed that two common predators of the Patagonian B. calyciflorus (the calanoid copepod Parabroteas sarsi and the backswimmer Notonecta vereertbruggheni) each ate 60–70 B. calyciflorus predator^?1 per day and cleared all rotifers from c. 250 mL per day. Thus, a very low mixis threshold and high maximal mixis ratio may ensure production of some resting eggs soon after colonisation of the pond and before complete removal from the plankton. 5. Two laboratory experiments showed that resting eggs of the Patagonian B. calyciflorus hatched at variable rates (28 and 81%) after a brief diapause when kept in the conditions under which they were produced and oviposited (20–21 °C; L: D 16: 8). Early hatching of resting eggs from pond sediment may allow multiple periods of colonisation and resting egg production in a season. This may offset the fitness cost of limited population growth through female parthenogenesis in the face of unpredictable and abrupt risk of extinction because of predators.     

Molecular genetic analysis of Daphnia in the English Lake District: species identity, hybridisation and resting egg banks

• 1 Taxonomic issues in many Daphnia species complexes are often confused by a high degree of phenotypic plasticity and by interspecific hybridisation. Here, we employ molecular genetic tools to confirm the species composition and incidence of hybridisation in extant and resting egg populations of Daphnia from Windermere and Esthwaite Water in the English Lake District.
• 2 A combination of species‐diagnostic allozymes and mtDNA, confirms that contemporary populations are dominated by a single species, D. galeata.
• 3 We present the first account of genetic characterisation of dated ‘resting’ eggs using microsatellites and mtDNA, employing PCR‐based DNA recovery, thus providing a temporal dimension to taxonomic patterns. Thirty years ago, two species were present in Esthwaite, D. galeata and D. hyalina, but Windermere populations were dominated by D. galeata only.
• 4 The use of PCR‐based mtDNA RFLP analysis as a species‐diagnostic tool, and microsatellites to monitor clonal diversity, provide a valuable approach for long‐term studies, especially in populations free from the complicating effect of frequent hybridisation. The detailed limnological records available for many large lakes, and associated changes in land‐use, pollutants and climate, combined with long‐term ephippial molecular genetic data, provide opportunities for exploring natural and anthropogenic impacts on genetic and community structure.

     

Females from resting eggs and parthenogenetic eggs in the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus: lipid droplets, starvation resistance and reproduction

1. In the heterogonic life cycle of monogonont rotifers, amictic (female‐producing) females develop from two types of eggs: fertilised resting (diapausing) eggs and parthenogenetic subitaneous eggs. Females hatched from resting eggs initiate clonal populations by female parthenogenesis and are called stem females. This study compares females from resting and parthenogenetic eggs that were produced under identical culture conditions and were of similar birth order. 2. Newborn stem females had many more lipid droplets in their tissues than similar‐sized, newborn females from parthenogenetic eggs. When neonates were stained with Nile Red and viewed under epifluorescent illumination, these droplets were shown to be sites of neutral‐lipid storage products. 3. Stem females had no posterolateral spines and short anterior spines, while their mothers and offspring in subsequent, parthenogenetic generations typically had long posterolateral spines and elongated anterior spines. 4. Newborn stem females survived starvation significantly longer than newborn females from parthenogenetic eggs. 5. When females from resting and parthenogenetic eggs were cultured from birth to death at a high food concentration, the reproductive potential (r day^?1) of the stem females was significantly higher (0.82–0.88 versus 0.70), primarily because of egg production at an earlier age. The mean lifetime fecundity (R_o) of stem females was significantly greater than that of females from parthenogenetic eggs. 6. Extensive lipid reserves should increase the ability of stem females to colonise new habitats. Firstly, compared with females from parthenogenetic eggs, stem females are more likely to experience starvation or food limitation. Resting eggs hatch in response to physical and chemical factors that are not directly related to food availability, and from sediments that may be far from food‐rich surface waters. Secondly, when food is abundant, stem females have a greater reproductive potential.     

Induction of mictic females in the rotifer Brachionus: oocytes of amictic females respond individually to population-density signal only during oogenesis shortly before oviposition

1. One at a time during the reproductive period of amictic females, oocytes fill with yolk and undergo a mitotic maturation division (oogenesis), are oviposited as single cells, and then develop parthenogenetically into females. Sexual reproduction in Brachionus and several other genera is initiated when amictic females are crowded and oviposit some eggs induced to differentiate into mictic females. Mictic females produce haploid eggs that can develop parthenogentically into males or be fertilised and develop into diapausing embryos called resting eggs. 2. This study examines the time when oocytes in amictic females respond to maternal population density. Is the fate of all oocytes in the germarium irreversibly determined during the early postnatal life of the mother, or is each oocyte labile until just before oviposition? In the former case, the probability of an amictic female producing a mictic daughter at any time throughout her reproductive period would reflect the population density she experienced while young and not that at the time she oviposited an egg. 3. Amictic females of two clones of a Florida strain of B. calyciflorus were cultured singly from birth at a low or high density (in a large or small volume) until about halfway through their reproductive period and then switched (experimental treatment), or not (control treatment), to the other density condition. The results indicate that the female fate of an oocyte is determined by maternal population density during oogenesis. Eggs oviposited soon after transfer from low to high density had the same, or a higher, probability of becoming mictic females compared with those produced by control females kept at the high density; eggs oviposited after transfer from the high to the low density had the same low probability of becoming mictic females as those produced by control females kept at the low density. 4. Control females kept at the high density were less likely to produce mictic daughters as they aged. This decline is not because of a decreased propensity of older females to respond to crowding, as older females responded maximally when transferred from a low to a high population density. 5. As oocytes in amictic females respond to maternal population density only during oogenesis, there is a negligible lag between the population‐density signal in the environment and the commitment to sexual reproduction. This minimises the obligatory two‐generation lag between this signal and production of resting eggs, and thus reduces the possibility that crowding will lead to food limitation before production of these eggs.     

镜湖不同湖区沉积物中轮虫休眠卵萌发的比较研究

实验室内对镜湖沉积物中的轮虫休眠卵进行了萌发,共孵出轮虫47种,隶属于10科19属;其中大湖区沉积物中萌发出的轮虫40种,小湖区41种,两湖区共同种类34种.每毫升大湖区沉积物中休眠卵萌发出的轮虫平均数量为(1.1±0.1)个,显著高于小湖区的(0.4±0.0)个.在两湖区沉积物中,以3种孵化方式所萌发出的平均密度超过4.0ind./200mL的轮虫种类总计有6种,它们是多须伪前翼轮虫(Proalides tentaculates)、裂痕龟纹轮虫(Anuraeopsis fissa)、螺形龟甲轮虫(Keratella cochlearis)、裂足臂尾轮虫(Brachionus diversicornis)、臂三肢轮虫(Filinia brachiata)和萼花臂尾轮虫(Brachionus calyciflorus);其中前三种轮虫为两湖区所共有.共有的3种轮虫的孵出情况在两湖区沉积物间也存在着差异.在小湖区沉积物中,3种孵化方式下孵出的平均密度大于0.05ind./200mL的轮虫属是臂尾轮属、伪前翼轮属、龟甲轮属和龟纹轮属,而大湖区沉积物中孵出的平均密度较高的轮虫属还包括三肢轮属、巨头轮属(Cephalodella)和异尾轮属(Trichocerca);水体营养程度较高的大湖区沉积物中孵出的臂尾轮属、伪前翼轮属和龟甲轮属轮虫的密度均高于营养程度较低的小湖区.     

Ecological and evolutionary significance of resting eggs in marine copepods: past, present, and future studies

The occurrence of a resting egg phase in the life cycle of marine and freshwater planktonic copepods is well documented and receiving increasing attention by investigators. The species generally occur in coastal marine waters, freshwater ponds and lakes in areas that undergo strong seasonal fluctuations, though examples have been reported for tropical and sub-tropical areas not subject to such extreme fluctuations. Typically such species disappear from the water column for portions of the year, but remain in the region as benthic resting eggs. Studies to date have focused on the conditions that promote the occurrence of resting eggs, the factors that affect their survival and hatching from sediments, the existence of egg banks in sediments, and the impact of resting eggs on plankton community structure. Benthic resting eggs of copepods include diapause eggs as well as subitaneous (non-diapause) eggs that are quiescent due to conditions in the sediments. As with other groups of organisms the resting egg phase is viewed as being critical for the perpetuation of species year after year, especially those that disappear from the water column for portions of the year. Some data indicate that eggs can survive for many years in sediments which would expand their influence to evolutionary time scales. This paper summarizes our understanding of embryonic dormancy in marine copepods.     

Formation and structure of the ephippium (resting egg case) in relation to molting and egg laying in the water flea Daphnia pulex De Geer (Cladocera: Daphniidae)

Resting eggs produced by daphnid species in response to environmental deterioration play an important role in colonizing new habitats or in re‐establishing extinct populations. Females lay resting eggs into the space within the dorsal part of their carapace and form an egg case called the ephippium to protect them. Previous studies mainly reported the morphology of the completely formed ephippium and/or the forming ephippium of an uncertain stage. To understand ephippium formation and to clarify key transitions in the formation of resting eggs, we examined the structure and formation of the ephippium in the water flea Daphnia pulex De Geer (Cladocera: Daphniidae) by stereomicroscopy, histology, and scanning electron microscopy. The females used in this study produced resting eggs by obligate parthenogenesis. We divided ephippium formation into four stages based on two molts and a single ovulation, as follows. Stage I begins 13 min after molting in adult females that do not ovulate. In Stage II, immediately after the first molt, a protuberance appears beneath the neck region and the carapace begins to thicken. In Stage III, the resting eggs ovulate and the carapace in the area of the forming ephippium becomes much thicker than the normal carapace and accumulates dark pigmentation. In Stage IV, following the second molt, the female sheds the ephippium with the enclosed resting eggs and forms a new carapace. These stages will provide a useful reference for future studies on resting egg formation. J. Morphol. 275:760–767, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Effects of Progesterone,Testosterone, and Estrogen on Sexual Reproduction of the Rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus

It is known that some vertebrate reproductive hormones have effects on rotifer reproduction, but little is known about their effects in combination. This motivated us to examine the effects of waterborne progesterone (P), testosterone (T), and estradiol (E) on reproduction of the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus, comparing exposures to single hormones and mixtures with a total concentration of 1000 μg/L. Asexual population growth (r) was high in all treatments, ranging from 1.28 to 1.43 d^–1 (P‐E), and from 0.99 to 1.22 d^–1 (P‐T). These results indicate that E, P, or T alone, or in combinations of P‐E and P‐T totaling 1000 µg/L, and the 3‐way combination P‐E‐T at 1200 µg/L do not reduce the asexual reproduction of B. calyciflorus. However, significant effects were detected on sexual reproduction with exposure to these hormone concentrations. Exposure to P‐T and P‐E at 1000 μg/L decreased resting egg production significantly. Analysis of mating indicated that fertilization was 5.3 times higher in the control than in treatments where females were exposed to 500 µg/L each P‐T. A similar result was observed when both females and males were exposed to 500 µg/L each of P‐T. When males alone were treated with 500 µg/L each of P‐T, there was no significant difference in male fertility compared to the control. These results suggest that B. calyciflorus uses oxidized sterols similar to P and T to regulate sexual reproduction and waterborne exposure of females to these compounds interferes with fertilization and resting egg production. (© 2010 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Benthic resting eggs of calanoid copepods in Norwegian enclosures used in mariculture: abundance, species composition and hatching

Abundance, species composition and viability of benthic resting eggs of calanoid copepods were investigated in the sediments of seven Norwegian enclosed pond systems used in mariculture as well as in the sediments of the nearby open sea. The ponds represented different types of morphometry and zooplankton communities and were located from approximately 60 to 70 °N. Differences in environmental conditions in deep water also typical with anoxia and the presence of hydrogen sulphide at most of the localities. The lowest and highest egg densities in the enclosures were 7.5 ± 6.4 × 10⁴ and 5.5 ± 2.5 × 10⁶ m^-2, respectively, higher than in the sediments of the nearby open sea. Highest densities were found at larger or median depths. Altogether, egg densities higher than 10³ m^-2 were found of only four calanoid species; Eurytemora affinis, Acartia teclae, Acartia clausi, Temora longicornis. Hatching success was variable (0–92%), and no significant correlation to the presence of anoxia and hydrogen sulphide was found. This high hatching success was achieved with eggs exposed to hydrogen sulphide for several months. The recruitment potential to the plankton of nauplii was estimated from 4.8 to 1682 nauplii l^-1 for the different localities. The results showed that resting egg production is a common life history characteristic of some neritic calanoid species in Norwegian waters. In addition to copepod eggs, low densities (< 10³ m^-2) of eggs from rotifers and cladocerans were found in most of the localities.     

The interplay between colonization history and gene flow in passively dispersing zooplankton: microsatellite analysis of rotifer resting egg banks

Zooplanktonic organisms that disperse passively as diapausing eggs often exhibit surprisingly strong population subdivision given their high colonization ability. Here we attempt to disentangle the impacts of colonization history and gene flow on these organisms by studying the population genetic structure of the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis. The resting egg banks of B. plicatilis in fourteen salt lake populations in the Iberian Peninsula were examined using seven microsatellite loci. A remarkably high degree of geographical structuring was found (F_st=0.43), with a significant pattern of isolation by distance. Microsatellite loci were in genetic equilibrium, ruling out inbreeding as an important force in population structuring. Comparisons are drawn with previously published phylogeographical data. Surprisingly, introgression of nuclear genes was detected in neighbouring populations with divergent mtDNA haplotypes. These results stress the long lasting impact of colonization history and the modulating effect of gene flow at local scales in these organisms.