The effect of various adjuncts on the surgical treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome secondary to chronic tenosynovitis.

A series of 22 patients with carpal tunnel syndrome secondary to chronic tenosynovitis was divided into two groups. The first group was treated by transverse carpal ligament release alone. The second group was treated by transverse carpal ligament release, external neurolysis of the median nerve, flexor synovectomy, and intraoperative corticosteroid instillation. Both groups were comparable preoperatively as to symptoms, signs, and electrophysiological data. At two years postoperatively there were no statistically significant differences in the symptoms, signs, and electrophysiological data in the two groups. The only difference was that patients undergoing release alone were able to return to work earlier than those patients who had the adjunctive procedures.     

A comparison of flexor tenosynovectomy, open carpal tunnel release, and open carpal tunnel release with flexor tenosynovectomy in the treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome

The purpose of this study was to identify the advantages and disadvantages of performing a flexor tenosynovectomy without dividing the transverse carpal ligament, an open carpal tunnel release, and an open carpal tunnel release with flexor tenosynovectomy in the treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome. From 1990 to 1998, a retrospective study was done in which a flexor tenosynovectomy was performed in 133 patients without division of the transverse carpal ligament and compared with 68 patients who had an open carpal tunnel release and 75 patients who had an open carpal tunnel release and flexor tenosynovectomy. Patients were followed up for an average period of 30 weeks with history and physical findings and nerve conduction velocities and for an average period of 2.6 years with telephone interviews. There was a 2.3 percent incidence of pillar pain in the flexor tenosynovectomy group, which may explain the earlier return to their regular jobs at an average time of 9.9 weeks, compared with 10.7 weeks for the carpal tunnel release group and 12.0 weeks for the carpal tunnel release/flexor tenosynovectomy group. The latter two groups had an incidence of pillar pain of 12.1 percent and 25.3 percent, respectively. Postoperative grip strength was statistically significantly improved in the flexor tenosynovectomy group compared with the other two groups, where adjustments were made for sex and preoperative grip strengths with standard error of adjusted means. In the flexor tenosynovectomy group, 20.6 percent of patients had a previous open or endoscopic carpal tunnel release with recurrent carpal tunnel syndrome, compared with 5.2 percent in the open carpal tunnel release group and 21.6 percent in the open carpal tunnel release with flexor tenosynovectomy group. Excisional biopsies of flexor tenosynovium in the flexor tenosynovectomy, open carpal tunnel release, and open carpal tunnel release with flexor tenosynovectomy groups revealed an incidence of fibrosis in 89.2 percent, 88.9 percent, and 87.7 percent of specimens, respectively. Edema was a frequent finding, but an active inflammatory response was seldom seen. The findings in this study indicate that because of a significant decrease in pillar pain, a flexor tenosynovectomy in the treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome would likely benefit workers who use the palm of the hand in heavy manual or highly repetitive work by allowing them to return to regular duty sooner.     

Aneurysm of the median artery causing recurrent carpal tunnel syndrome and anatomic review

A patient is presented who had recurrent carpal tunnel syndrome symptoms in his left hand 1 year after having undergone release of the transverse carpal ligament. On exploration, this was found to be due to an aneurysm of a median artery and possibly scarring due to this compression around the branches of the bifurcated median nerve. This represents the first case in the literature to comment on (1) the absence of bilaterality of the anatomic finding and (2) carpal tunnel syndrome relative to median artery aneurysm. With this in mind, a plea is made for careful exploration of the carpal tunnel, maintaining an incision as far to the ulnar side of the median nerve as technically possible with thorough visualization of the contents of the tunnel and any anatomic variance involved. The incidence of the combination of aberrant median artery with high bifurcation of the median nerve is unknown, as is the incidence of aneurysm of the median artery.     

The incidence of recurrence after endoscopic carpal tunnel release

Endoscopic carpal tunnel release has been used to decompress the median nerve in carpal tunnel syndrome for over the past decade, with an advantage (over the traditional "open" release) being decreased pain in the postoperative period. The goals of this study were to attempt to define the recurrence rate after endoscopic carpal tunnel release and to determine if it differs from that of open technique. The charts of 191 consecutive carpal tunnel syndrome patients treated operatively at the University of Missouri were reviewed. For this study, recurrent carpal tunnel syndrome was defined as documented cases in which the symptoms had resolved following surgical release but subsequently recurred, requiring surgical rerelease of the carpal tunnel. All endoscopic releases were performed using the Chow two-portal technique. Statistical analysis was performed using Fisher's exact test. A total of 103 patient hands had open carpal tunnel releases; 88 were endoscopically released. Total follow-up time (from the initial release) averaged 29 months for the open group and 22 months for the endoscopic group. There were no recurrences in the open group and six recurrences in the endoscopic group (7 percent, p = 0.008). All six recurrences were in worker's compensation patients. The median time between endoscopic release and rerelease was 8.5 months. There seems to be a statistically higher incidence of recurrence of carpal tunnel syndrome after endoscopic release compared with the traditional "open" release in our cases. Although the pathogenesis of this increased rate of recurrence is not clear, this should be considered when planning surgical release of the volar carpal ligament for carpal tunnel syndrome.     

Clinical experience with the CO2 laser during carpal tunnel decompression

Scar tissue formation along the cut edges of the transverse carpal ligament has been found to be among the primary causes for persistent median nerve compression following carpal tunnel release with the steel scalpel. Since laser surgery has been shown to be effective in reducing incisional inflammatory reactions, hypertrophic scarring, and postoperative pain and edema, in achieving better hemostasis, the application of the carbon dioxide laser may be a more efficient surgical tool than the steel scalpel for carpal tunnel release. In 46 cases of carpal tunnel syndrome, the carbon dioxide laser was utilized to vaporize the transverse carpal ligament and seal its edges. The patients were then reevaluated at 1 week, 2 weeks, 6 months, 1 year, and 2 years. No intraoperative complications were encountered. Patients reported minimal postoperative pain, rapid return of sensibility, decreased paresthesia, and increased motor function. After 2 years, there have been no recurrent symptoms of median nerve compression in these patients.     

Poor outcome for neural surgery (epineurotomy or neurolysis) for carpal tunnel syndrome compared with carpal tunnel release alone: a meta-analysis of global outcomes

A meta-analysis was performed on the results of eight studies that compared the global outcomes of patients who received carpal tunnel release with the global outcomes of patients who received carpal tunnel release and neurolysis or epineurotomy. The meta-analysis suggests that patients who received such neural surgery tended to have poorer global outcomes than those who did not (odds ratio, 0.54; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.32 to 0.90). The data are homogenous, and linear-regression analysis indicates that patient attrition did not influence the outcome of the meta-analysis. The results of this meta-analysis indicate that neural surgery is potentially harmful for most patients with carpal tunnel syndrome. The possibility remains that neural surgery may be helpful in special cases, such as in the presence of marked scarring or neural adhesion, but no available evidence specifically documents the benefits and harms of surgery among such patients.     

Secondary carpal tunnel surgery

A small but significant group of patients with carpal tunnel syndrome "fail" primary carpal tunnel release and require secondary surgery. The persistence or recurrence of previous symptoms or the development of new symptoms is often indicative of the nature of the patient's problem. Postoperative complications may be classified into the general areas of neurological, vascular, tendon, and wrist complaints. A thorough clinical evaluation, including a complete neurological examination of the hand and upper extremity, provides an accurate assessment of the status of the median nerve. Important surgical techniques that may be used during secondary carpal tunnel surgery include internal neurolysis, neuroma-in-continuity assessment, neuroma management, nerve grafting, and tissue interposition flaps.     

A prospective study to assess the outcome of steroid injections and wrist splinting for the treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome

Surgery is the definitive treatment for carpal tunnel syndrome. Conservative treatments, such as wrist splinting and steroid injections, are also effective for the relief of carpal tunnel symptoms, but their use remains controversial because they only offer long-term relief in a minority of patients. A prospective study was performed to assess the role of steroid injections combined with wrist splinting for the management of carpal tunnel syndrome. A total of 73 patients with 99 affected hands were studied. Patients presenting with known medical causes or muscle wasting were excluded. Diagnosis was made clinically and electrodiagnostic studies were performed only when equivocal clinical signs were present. Each patient received up to three betamethasone injections into the carpal tunnel and wore a neutral-position wrist splint continuously for 9 weeks. After that period, symptomatic patients received an open carpal tunnel release, and those who remained asymptomatic were followed up regularly for at least 1 year. Patients who relapsed were scheduled for surgery. At a minimum follow-up of 1 year, seven patients (9.6 percent) with 10 affected hands (10.1 percent) remained asymptomatic. This group had a significantly shorter duration of symptoms (2.9 months versus 8.35 months; p = 0.039, Mann-Whitney test) and significantly less sensory change (40 percent versus 72 percent; p = 0.048, Fisher's exact test) at presentation when compared with the group who had surgery. It is concluded that steroid injections and wrist splinting are effective for relief of carpal tunnel syndrome symptoms but have a long-term effect in only 10 percent of patients. Symptom duration of less than 3 months and absence of sensory impairment at presentation were predictive of a lasting response to conservative treatment. It is suggested that selected patients (i.e., with no thenar wasting or obvious underlying cause) presenting with mild to moderate carpal tunnel syndrome receive either a single steroid injection or wear a wrist splint for 3 weeks. This will allow identification of the 10 percent of patients who respond well to conservative therapy and do not need surgery.     

Morphometric analysis of collagen fibrils in idiopathic carpal tunnel syndrome

Surgical biopsies of dissected transverse carpal ligaments of patients with idiopathic carpal tunnel syndrome were examined with an electron microscope revealing collagen fibrils with varying diameters. Morphometric analysis of transversely cut collagen fibrils was performed on photomicrographs exhibiting fibrils with a small diameter comparable to that in normal tissue as well as fibrils with a large diameter that could not be observed in normal tissue.     

Idiopathic carpal tunnel syndrome caused by carpal stenosis.

Computed tomography was used to measure the cross-sectional area of the carpal canals in normal controls of both sexes and in women with idiopathic carpal tunnel syndrome. The women controls had significantly smaller carpal canals than the men controls both proximally and distally. In the patients both the proximal and distal cross-sectional areas were significantly reduced compared with the women controls. The measurements showed that carpal canal stenosis is associated with idiopathic carpal tunnel syndrome, narrowing of the canal is bilateral in patients who have unilateral symptoms, and narrowing is greater in the proximal carpal canal. There was no correlation between age and the size of the canal. The difference in the size of the carpal canal between normal men and women might explain the tendency of women to develop carpal tunnel syndrome. The lack of correlation between age and the size of the canal suggests that stenosis of the carpal canal is inherited rather than acquired. Symptoms arise only later in life, when degenerated changes in the content or the walls of the carpal canal compete with the median nerve for space and its function becomes impaired by compression.     

Volar/dorsal compressive mechanical behavior of the transverse carpal ligament

Mechanical insult to the median nerve caused by contact with the digital flexor tendons and/or carpal tunnel boundaries may contribute to the development of carpal tunnel syndrome. Since the transverse carpal ligament (TCL) comprises the volar boundary of the carpal tunnel, its mechanics in part govern the potential insult to the median nerve. Using unconfined compression testing in combination with a finite element-based optimization process, nominal stiffness measurements and first-order Ogden hyperelastic material coefficients (μ and α ) were determined to describe the volar/dorsal compressive behavior of the TCL. Five different locations on the TCL were tested, three of which were deep to the origins of the thenar and hypothenar muscles. The average (± standard deviation) low-strain and high-strain TCL stiffness values in compression sites outside the muscle attachment region were 3.6 N/mm (±2.7) and 28.0 N/mm (±20.2), respectively. The average stiffness values at compression sites with muscle attachments were notably lower, with low-strain and high-strain stiffness values of 1.2 N/mm (±0.5) and 9.7 N/mm (±4.8), respectively. The average Ogden coefficients for the muscle attachment region were 51.6 kPa (±16.5) for μ and 16.5 (±2.0) for α, while coefficients for the non-muscle attachment region were 117.8 kPa (±86.8) for μ and 17.2 (±1.6) for α. These TCL compressive mechanical properties can help inprove computational models, which can be used to provide insight into the mechanisms of median nerve injury leading to the onset of carpal tunnel syndrome symptoms.     

The Carpal Tunnel Syndrome—A Review of 100 Patients Treated Surgically

The carpal tunnel syndrome, or compression neuropathy of the median nerve at the wrist, is a common cause of burning pain, numbness and tingling in the hand. The diagnosis is suggested by nocturnal paresthesias in the thumb, index and long fingers associated with signs of irritability of the median nerve in the carpal tunnel at the wrist. Surgical treatment in the form of incision of the transverse carpal ligament should be performed before irreversible motor and sensory changes occur.     

Finite element analysis for transverse carpal ligament tensile strain and carpal arch area

Mechanics of carpal tunnel soft tissue, such as fat, muscle and transverse carpal ligament (TCL), around the median nerve may render the median nerve vulnerable to compression neuropathy. The purpose of this study was to understand the roles of carpal tunnel soft tissue mechanical properties and intratunnel pressure on the TCL tensile strain and carpal arch area (CAA) using finite element analysis (FEA). Manual segmentation of the thenar muscles, skin, fat, TCL, hamate bone, and trapezium bone in the transverse plane at distal carpal tunnel were obtained from B-mode ultrasound images of one cadaveric hand. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to examine the dependence of TCL tensile strain and CAA on TCL elastic modulus (0.125–10 MPa volar-dorsally; 1.375–110 MPa transversely), skin-fat and thenar muscle initial shear modulus (1.6–160 kPa for skin-fat; 0.425–42.5 kPa for muscle), and intratunnel pressure (60–480 mmHg). Predictions of TCL tensile strain under different intratunnel pressures were validated with the experimental data obtained on the same cadaveric hand. Results showed that skin, fat and muscles had little effect on the TCL tensile strain and CAA changes. However, TCL tensile strain and CAA increased with decreased elastic modulus of TCL and increased intratunnel pressure. The TCL tensile strain and CAA increased linearly with increased pressure while increased exponentially with decreased elastic modulus of TCL. Softening the TCL by decreasing the elastic modulus may be an alternative clinical approach to carpal tunnel expansion to accommodate elevated intratunnel pressure and alleviate median nerve compression neuropathy.     

Microvascular omental transfer for the treatment of severe recurrent median neuritis of the wrist: a long-term follow-up

The results of reoperation for recurrent carpal tunnel syndrome have been quite disappointing. In addition to a secondary external or internal neurolysis, multiple tissues and procedures have been used to decrease scar adherence of the reoperated median nerve including muscle, fascial or fat flaps, and vein wrapping. However, each technique has certain limitations, especially in the carpal tunnel that has previously undergone multiple operations, with diffuse scar and adherence over an extended length of the median nerve. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the long-term functional and symptomatic outcome following microvascular omental transfer for severe recalcitrant median neuritis. Between 1989 and 1993, 10 extremities in seven patients underwent omental transfer for severe recurrent median neuritis at the wrist. Nine extremities in six women were available for personal evaluation at an average follow-up of 6.6 years (range, 4.5 to 8.75 years). All extremities had undergone a minimum of two previous surgical procedures, and since 1991, all patients also failed local pedicle tissue coverage. Each patient completed a physical examination, a questionnaire, and electrophysiologic studies. At surgery, all median nerves were encased in dense adherent scar, which often extended proximal to the wrist crease. There were seven neural abnormalities in six extremities, three patent median arteries, and one aberrant palmaris longus muscle. The Functional Status Index was 3.1 +/- 0.7 and the Symptom Severity Index was 3.1 +/- 0.9, with a range of 1 (best) to 5. Most symptoms were improved but not completely alleviated. Four of nine extremities exhibited improved two-point discrimination and five of seven improved sensitivity, according to the Semmes-Weinstein monofilament test. Grip strength increased an average of 73 percent in seven of nine extremities and pinch strength increased 101 percent in four of nine extremities. Five of six patients were satisfied with their results and reported improved quality of life. Preoperatively, five of seven patients were working on light duty; postoperatively, three of six patients attempted to return to work, but none were working at final follow-up. Electrophysiologic data did not correlate with the symptomatic or functional outcome. There were four complications; three were related to delayed wound healing, and one morbidly obese patient developed a ventral hernia. Wrapping the median nerve with vascularized omentum is a viable option for the treatment of severe recalcitrant carpal tunnel syndrome. Despite a high satisfaction rate and significant symptomatic improvement, many symptoms will persist, but to a lesser degree.     

Median nerve compression and trigger finger in the mucopolysaccharidoses and related diseases.

Patients with Hurler's syndrome (MPS-1H), I-cell disease (ML-II) and pseudo-Hurler's syndrome (ML-III) had median nerve compression and triggering of the fingers which limited finger extension. To our knowledge, this combination has not been reported previously in patients with mucopolysaccharidoses and related disorders. In all of our 3 cases the median nerve was compressed by thickened flexor tenosynovium. Synovectomy and resection of the volar carpal ligament improved the hand function in all, including the mentally retarded patient with Hurler's syndrome. Release of the fibroosseous tunnel in two patients was followed by an increased range of motion (but not full extension). A fourth patient, without a mucopolysaccharide storage disorder, also had the combination of trigger finger and carpal tunnel syndrome.     

Injection with methylprednisolone proximal to the carpal tunnel: randomised double blind trial

ObjectiveTo assess the effect of a 40 mg methylprednisolone injection proximal to the carpal tunnel in patients with the carpal tunnel syndrome.DesignRandomised double blind placebo controlled trial. SettingOutpatient neurology clinic in a district general hospital.ParticipantsPatients with symptoms of the carpal tunnel syndrome for more than 3 months, confirmed by electrophysiological tests and aged over 18 years.InterventionInjection with 10 mg lignocaine (lidocaine) or 10 mg lignocaine and 40 mg methylprednisolone. Non-responders who had received lignocaine received 40 mg methylprednisolone and 10 mg lignocaine and were followed in an open study.ResultsAt 1 month 6 (20%) of 30 patients in the control group had improved compared with 23 (77%) of 30 patients the intervention group (difference 57% (95% confidence interval 36% to 77%)). After 1 year, 2 of 6 improved patients in the control group did not need a second treatment, compared with 15 of 23 improved patients in the intervention group (difference 43% (23% to 63%). Of the 28 non-responders in the control group, 24 (86%) improved after methylprednisolone. Of these 24 patients, 12 needed surgical treatment within one year.ConclusionA single injection with steroids close to the carpal tunnel may result in long term improvement and should be considered before surgical decompression.

Key messages

• Corticosteroid injections into the carpal tunnel may damage the nerve, and any treatment benefits may be of short duration
• A single injection with steroids proximal to the carpal tunnel improves 77% of patients with the carpal tunnel syndrome at one month after treatment
• This single injection is still effective at one year in half of the patients
• Injections proximal to the carpal tunnel have no side effects and are easier to carry out than injections into the carpal tunnel

     

Open carpal tunnel release using a 1-centimeter incision: technique and outcomes for 104 patients

The advantages of endoscopic carpal tunnel release, compared with traditional open techniques, include smaller incisions, less scar tenderness, and faster recoveries. However, endoscopic carpal tunnel release has also been associated with higher complication rates. The goal of this study was to evaluate the safety and functional outcomes of minimal-incision open carpal tunnel release. In this prospective study involving a 2-year period, 104 patients (149 hands) underwent open carpal tunnel release with a 1-cm incision. Prospective data on complications among 104 patients were recorded, and functional outcomes among 20 patients were assessed by using the Michigan Hand Outcomes Questionnaire, the Jebsen-Taylor Hand Function Test, and pinch/grip strength testing. Data were collected before the operation and 3 weeks and 6 months after the operation. Complications included three wound infections and one carpal tunnel syndrome recurrence, 18 months after the initial release procedure. Michigan Hand Outcomes Questionnaire scores improved significantly between the preoperative and postoperative periods. There were no significant changes in Jebsen-Taylor Hand Function Test results or pinch/grip strength. Minimal-incision open carpal tunnel release can be performed safely and is associated with good functional outcomes.     

Comparison of carpal canal pressure in paraplegic and nonparaplegic subjects: clinical implications

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the pressure within the carpal tunnel that was generated with certain tasks in paraplegic versus nonparaplegic subjects. Four groups of subjects were evaluated: 10 wrists in six paraplegic subjects with carpal tunnel syndrome, 11 wrists in six paraplegics without the syndrome, 12 wrists in nine nonparaplegics with the syndrome, and 17 wrists in 11 nonparaplegics without the syndrome. Carpal canal pressures were measured in the wrists in three positions (neutral, 45-degree flexion, 45-degree extension) and during two dynamic tasks [wheelchair propulsion and RAISE (relief of anatomic ischial skin embarrassment) maneuver]. External force resistors were placed over the carpal canal and correlated with internal tunnel pressures. At each wrist position, paraplegics with carpal tunnel syndrome consistently had higher carpal canal pressure than did the other groups at the corresponding wrist position; statistical significance was evident with regard to the neutral wrist position (p < 0.05). Within each group of subjects, wrist extension and wrist flexion produced a statistically significant increase in carpal canal pressure (p < 0.05), compared with the neutral wrist position. Dynamic tasks (wheelchair propulsion and the RAISE maneuver) significantly elevated the carpal canal pressure in paraplegics with carpal tunnel syndrome, compared with the other groups (p < 0.05). Lastly, there is a linear positive correlation between carpal canal pressure and external force resistance.     

Test of a new technique for the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome.

Several new techniques for carpal tunnel syndrome diagnosis have been developed in the last few years. This work tests a technique that compares the distal motor latency of the median nerve to the second lumbrical muscle (2L) with the distal motor latency of the ulnar nerve to the interossei muscle (INT). Results from 40 normal hands give the superior limit of the normal difference (2L-INT) as 0. 26 ms (&xmacr;+3 SD). In 55 hands with different levels of carpal tunnel syndrome, this new technique was more sensitive and accurate than the conventional test which uses the distal motor latency of the median nerve to the abductor pollicis brevis muscle (APB), especially in the less severe cases. With the absence of the compound muscle action potentials of the APB muscle caused by severe thenar atrophy, it is much easier to obtain the potential from the 2L muscle. We concluded that this is a sensitive, simple, rapid, and non-invasive new technique, and therefore, it should be incorporated as part of the routine ENMG procedures for carpal tunnel syndrome diagnosis.