A nonfunctional sequence converted to a signal for glycophosphatidylinositol membrane anchor attachment

The COOH terminus of decay-accelerating factor (DAF) contains a signal that directs glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI) membrane anchor attachment in a process involving concerted proteolytic removal of 28 COOH-terminal residues. At least two elements are required for anchor addition: a COOH-terminal hydrophobic domain and a cleavage/attachment site located NH2-terminal to it, requiring a small amino acid as the acceptor for GPI addition. We previously showed that the last 29-37 residues of DAF, making up the COOH-terminal hydrophobic domain plus 20 residues of the adjacent serine/threonine-rich domain (including the anchor addition site), when fused to the COOH terminus of human growth hormone (hGH) will target the fusion protein to the plasma membrane via a GPI anchor. In contrast, a similar fusion protein (hGH-LDLR-DAF17, abbreviated HLD) containing a fragment of the serine/threonine-rich domain of the LDL receptor (LDLR) in place of the DAF-derived serine/threonine-rich sequences, does not become GPI anchored. We now show that this null sequence for GPI attachment can be converted to a strong GPI signal by mutating a pair of residues (valine-glutamate) in the LDLR sequence at a position corresponding to the normal cleavage/attachment site, to serine-glycine, as found in the DAF sequence. A single mutation (converting valine at the anchor addition site to serine, the normal acceptor for GPI addition in DAF) was insufficient to produce GPI anchoring, as was mutation of the valine-glutamate pair to serine-phenylalanine (a bulky residue). These results suggest that a pair of small residues (presumably flanking the cleavage point) is required for GPI attachment. By introducing the sequence serine-glycine (comprising a cleavage-attachment site for GPI addition) at different positions in the LDLR sequence of the fusion protein, HLD, we show that optimal GPI attachment requires a processing site positioned 10-12 residues NH2-terminal to the hydrophobic domain, the efficiency anchor attachment dropping off sharply as the cleavage site is moved beyond these limits. These data suggest that the GPI signal consists solely of a hydrophobic domain combined with a processing site composed of a pair of small residues, positioned 10-12 residues NH2-terminal to the hydrophobic domain. No other structural motifs appear necessary.     

Analysis of the signal for attachment of a glycophospholipid membrane anchor

The COOH terminus of decay accelerating factor (DAF) contains a signal that directs attachment of a glycophospholipid (GPI) membrane anchor. To define this signal we deleted portions of the DAF COOH terminus and expressed the mutant cDNAs it CV1 origin-deficient SV-40 cells. Our results show that the COOH-terminal hydrophobic domain (17 residues) is absolutely required for GPI anchor attachment. However, when fused to the COOH terminus of a secreted protein this hydrophobic domain is insufficient to direct attachment of a GPI anchor. Additional specific information located within the adjacent 20 residues appears to be necessary. We speculate that by analogy with signal sequences for membrane translocation, GPI anchor attachment requires both a COOH-terminal hydrophobic domain (the GPI signal) as well as a suitable cleavage/attachment site located NH2 terminal to the signal.     

An internally positioned signal can direct attachment of a glycophospholipid membrane anchor

All known glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored membrane proteins contain a COOH-terminal hydrophobic domain necessary for signalling anchor attachment. To examine the requirement that this signal be at the COOH terminus of the protein, we constructed a chimeric protein, DAFhGH, in which human growth hormone (hGH) was fused to the COOH terminus of decay accelerating factor (DAF) (a GPI-anchored protein), thereby placing the GPI signal in the middle of the chimeric protein. We show that the fusion protein appears to be processed at the normal DAF processing site in COS cells, producing GPI-anchored DAF on the cell surface. This result indicates that the GPI signal does not have to be at the COOH terminus to direct anchor addition, suggesting that the absence of a hydrophilic COOH-terminal extension (beyond the hydrophobic domain) is not a necessary requirement for GPI anchoring. A similar DAFhGH fusion, containing an internal GPI signal in which the DAF hydrophobic domain was replaced with the signal peptide of hGH, also produced GPI-anchored cell surface DAF. The signal for GPI attachment thus exhibits neither position specificity nor sequence specificity. In addition, mutant DAF or DAFhGH constructs lacking an NH2-terminal signal peptide failed to produce GPI-anchored protein, suggesting that membrane translocation is necessary for anchor addition.     

Fusion of sequence elements from non-anchored proteins to generate a fully functional signal for glycophosphatidylinositol membrane anchor attachment

Glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI) membrane anchor attachment is directed by a cleavable signal at the COOH terminus of the protein. The complete lack of homology among different GPI-anchored proteins suggests that this signal is of a general nature. Previous analysis of the GPI signal of decay accelerating factor (DAF) suggests that the minimal requirements for GPI attachment are (a) a hydrophobic domain and (b) a cleavage/attachment site consisting of a pair of small residues positioned 10-12 residues NH2-terminal to a hydrophobic domain. As an ultimate test of these rules we constructed four synthetic GPI signals, meeting these requirements but assembled entirely from sequence elements not normally involved in GPI attachment. We show that these synthetic signals are able to direct human growth hormone (hGH), a secreted protein, to the plasma membrane via a GPI anchor. Our results indicate that different hydrophobic sequences, derived from either the prolactin or hGH NH2-terminal signal peptide, can be linked to different cleavage sites via different hydrophilic spacers to produce a functional GPI signal. These data confirm that the only requirements for GPI-anchoring are a pair of small residues positioned 10-12 residues NH2 terminal to a hydrophobic domain, no other structural motifs being necessary.     

Requirements for glycosylphosphatidylinositol attachment are similar but not identical in mammalian cells and parasitic protozoa

The general features of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) signal have been conserved in evolution. To test whether the requirements for GPI attachment are indeed the same in mammalian cells and parasitic protozoa, we expressed the prototype GPI-linked protein of Trypanosoma brucei, the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG), in COS cells. Although large amounts of VSG were produced, only a small fraction became GPI linked. This impaired processing is not caused by the VSG ectodomain, since replacement of the VSG GPI signal with that of decay accelerating factor (DAF) produced GPI-linked VSG. Furthermore, whereas fusion of the DAF GPI signal to the COOH terminus of human growth hormone (hGH) produces GPI-linked hGH, an analogous hGH fusion using the VSG GPI signal does not, indicating that the VSG GPI signal functions poorly in mammalian cells. By constructing chimeric VSG-DAF GPI signals and fusing them to the COOH terminus of hGH, we show that of the two critical elements that comprise the GPI-signal--the cleavage/attachment site and the COOH terminal hydrophobic domain--the former is responsible for the impaired activity of the VSG GPI signal in COS cells. To confirm this, we show that the VSG GPI signal can be converted to a viable signal for mammalian cells by altering the amino acid configuration at the cleavage/attachment site. We also show that when fused to the COOH terminus of hGH, the putative GPI signal from the malaria circumsporozoite (CS) protein produces low levels of GPI- anchored hGH, suggesting that the CS protein is indeed GPI linked, but that the CS protein GPI signal, like the VSG-signal, functions poorly in COS cells. The finding that the requirements for GPI attachment are similar but not identical in parasitic protozoa and mammalian cells may allow for the development of selective inhibitors of GPI-anchoring that might prove useful as antiparasite therapeutics.     

Phosphatidylinositol glycan (PI-G) anchored membrane proteins. Amino acid requirements adjacent to the site of cleavage and PI-G attachment in the COOH-terminal signal peptide.

Secreted proteins are processed from a nascent form that contains an NH2-terminal signal peptide. During processing, the latter is cleaved by a specific NH2-terminal signal peptidase. The nascent form of phosphatidylinositol glycan (PI-G) tailed proteins contain both an NH2- and a COOH-terminal signal peptide. The two signal peptides have much in common, such as size and hydrophobicity. The COOH-terminal peptide is also cleaved during processing. We propose that the amino acid in a nascent protein that ultimately combines with the PI-G moiety be designated the omega site. Amino acids adjacent and COOH-terminal to the omega site would then be omega + 1, omega + 2, etc. In previous studies, we showed that allowable substitutions at the omega site of an engineered form of placental alkaline phosphatase (miniPLAP) are limited to 6 small amino acids. In the present study, mutations were made at the omega + 1 and omega + 2 sites. At the omega + 1 site, processing to varying degrees was observed with 8 of the 9 amino acids substituted for alanine, the normal constituent. Only the proline mutant showed no processing. By contrast, the only substituents permitted at the omega + 2 site were glycine and alanine, with only trace activity observed with serine and cysteine. Thus, just as there is a -1, -3 rule for predicting cleavage by NH2-terminal signal peptidase, there appears to be a comparable omega, omega + 2 rule for predicting cleavage/PI-G addition by COOH-terminal signal transamidase.     

Yeast Gaa1p is required for attachment of a completed GPI anchor onto proteins

Anchoring of proteins to membranes by glycosylphosphatidylinositols (GPIs) is ubiquitous among all eukaryotes and heavily used by parasitic protozoa. GPI is synthesized and transferred en bloc to form GPI- anchored proteins. The key enzyme in this process is a putative GPI:protein transamidase that would cleave a peptide bond near the COOH terminus of the protein and attach the GPI by an amide linkage. We have identified a gene, GAA1, encoding an essential ER protein required for GPI anchoring. gaal mutant cells synthesize the complete GPI anchor precursor at nonpermissive temperatures, but do not attach it to proteins. Overexpression of GAA1 improves the ability of cells to attach anchors to a GPI-anchored protein with a mutant anchor attachment site. Therefore, Gaa1p is required for a terminal step of GPI anchor attachment and could be part of the putative GPI:protein transamidase.     

Proteins containing an uncleaved signal for glycophosphatidylinositol membrane anchor attachment are retained in a post-ER compartment

Glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored membrane proteins are initially synthesized with a cleavable COOH-terminal extension that signals anchor attachment. Overexpression in COS cells of hGH-DAF fusion proteins containing the GPI signal of decay accelerating factor (DAF) fused to the COOH-terminus of human growth hormone (hGH), produces both GPI-anchored hGH-DAF and uncleaved precursors that retain the GPI signal. Using hGH-DAF fusion proteins containing a mutated, noncleavable GPI signal, we show that uncleaved polypeptides are retained inside the cell and accumulate in a brefeldin A-sensitive, Golgi-like juxtanuclear structure. Retention requires the presence of either a functional or a noncleavable GPI signal; hGH-DAF fusion proteins containing only the COOH-terminal hydrophobic domain (a component of the GPI signal) are secreted. Immunofluorescence analysis shows colocalization of the retained, uncleaved fusion proteins with both a Golgi marker and with p53, a marker of the ER-Golgi intermediate compartment. Since N-linked glycosylation is postulated to facilitate the transport of proteins to the cell surface, we engineered a glycosylation site into hGH-DAF. Glycosylation failed to completely override the transport block, but allowed some uncleaved hGH-DAF to pass through the secretory pathway and acquire endoglycosidase H resistance. The retained molecules remained endoglycosidase H sensitive. We suggest that the uncleaved fusion protein is retained in a sorting compartment between the ER and the medial Golgi complex. We speculate that a mechanism exists to retain proteins containing an uncleaved GPI signal as part of a system for quality control.     

Mutagenesis analysis of human SM22: characterization of actin binding.

SM22 is a 201-amino acid actin-binding protein expressed at high levels in smooth muscle cells. It has structural homology to calponin, but how SM22 binds to actin remains unknown. We performed site-directed mutagenesis to generate a series of NH(2)-terminal histidine (His)-tagged mutants of human SM22 in Escherichia coli and used these to analyze the functional importance of potential actin binding domains. Purified full-length recombinant SM22 bound to actin in vitro, as demonstrated by cosedimentation assay. Binding did not vary with calcium concentration. The COOH-terminal domain of SM22 is required for actin affinity, because COOH terminally truncated mutants [SM22-(1-186) and SM22-(1-166)] exhibited markedly reduced cosedimentation with actin, and no actin binding of SM22-(1-151) could be detected. Internal deletion of a putative actin binding site (154-KKAQEHKR-161) partially prevented actin binding, as did point mutation to neutralize either or both pairs of positively charged residues at the ends of this region (KK154LL and/or KR160LL). Internal deletion of amino acids 170-180 or 170-186 also partially or almost completely inhibited actin cosedimentation, respectively. Of the three consensus protein kinase C or casein kinase II phosphorylation sites in SM22, only Ser-181 was readily phosphorylated by protein kinase C in vitro, and such phosphorylation greatly decreased actin binding. Substitution of Ser-181 to aspartic acid (to mimic serine phosphorylation) also reduced actin binding. Immunostains of transiently transfected airway myocytes revealed that full-length NH(2)-terminal FLAG-tagged SM22 colocalizes with actin filaments, whereas FLAG-SM22-(1-151) does not. These data confirm that SM22 binds to actin in vitro and in vivo and, for the first time, demonstrate that multiple regions within the COOH-terminal domain are required for full actin affinity.     

Regions of Rhodobacter sphaeroides cytochrome c2 required for export, heme attachment, and function.

Cytochrome c2 is a periplasmic redox protein involved in both the aerobic and photosynthetic electron transport chains of Rhodobacter sphaeroides. The process of cytochrome c2 maturation has been analyzed in order to understand the protein sequences involved in attachment of the essential heme moiety to the cytochrome c2 polypeptide and localization of the protein to the periplasm. To accomplish this, five different translational fusions which differ only in the cytochrome c2 fusion junction were constructed between cytochrome c2 and the Escherichia coli periplasmic alkaline phosphatase. All five of the fusion proteins are exported to the periplasmic space. The four fusion proteins that contain the NH2-terminal site of covalent heme attachment to cytochrome c2 are substrates for heme binding, suggesting that the COOH-terminal region of the protein is not required for heme attachment. Three of these hybrids possess heme peroxidase activity, which indicates that they are functional as electron carriers. Biological activity is possessed by one hybrid protein constructed five amino acids before the cytochrome c2 COOH terminus, since synthesis of this protein restores photosynthetic growth to a photosynthetically incompetent cytochrome c2-deficient derivative of R. sphaeroides. Biochemical analysis of these hybrids has confirmed CycA polypeptide sequences sufficient for export of the protein (A. R. Varga and S. Kaplan, J. Bacteriol. 171:5830-5839, 1989), and it has allowed us to identify regions of the protein sufficient for covalent heme attachment, heme peroxidase activity, docking to membrane-bound redox partners, or the capability to function as an electron carrier.     

Activation of human furin precursor processing endoprotease occurs by an intramolecular autoproteolytic cleavage.

Human furin is a calcium-dependent serine endoprotease that can efficiently cleave many precursor proteins on the carboxyl side of the consensus cleavage sequence, -Arg-X-Lys/Arg-Arg-, both in vivo and in vitro. Analysis of furin proteins in extracts of cells infected with a vaccinia recombinant expressing human furin show that the enzyme is present as two prominent forms of 90 and 96 kDa. Because the structurally related bacterial subtilisins require endoproteolytic removal of the NH2-terminal pro-region by an autocatalytic intramolecular cleavage, we speculated that the size heterogeneity in the furin doublet similarly may result from a proteolytic removal of an NH2-terminal pro-region. Here we report identification of the 90-kDa furin NH2 terminus and, based on the reported sequence of the furin cDNA, demonstrate that this furin protein is derived from a larger precursor by an endoproteolytic cleavage on the COOH-terminal side of a consensus furin cleavage site, -Arg-Thr-Lys-Arg107-. Expression of mutant furin molecules containing an altered cleavage site (Arg104----Ala or Arg107----Gly) resulted in the production of only the 96-kDa furin protein. Assays of furin-dependent cleavage of a protein substrate in vitro showed that proteolytic activity was associated with the 90-kDa and not the 96-kDa furin protein, demonstrating that removal of the NH2-terminal pro-region is required for furin activity. Expression of a third furin construct containing a mutation of the active site aspartate (Asp153----Asn) similarly resulted in the expression of only the 96-kDa protein, suggesting that furin activation occurs by an autoproteolytic cleavage. Finally, the production of 90-kDa furin from either site-directed furin mutant could not be potentiated by overexpressing active furin, suggesting that the autoproteolytic activation was an intramolecular event.     

Domain structure of the large subunit of Escherichia coli carbamoyl phosphate synthetase. Location of the binding site for the allosteric inhibitor UMP in the COOH-terminal domain

The large subunit of Escherichia coli carbamoyl phosphate synthetase (a polypeptide of 117.7 kDa that consists of two homologous halves) is responsible for carbamoyl phosphate synthesis from NH3 and for the binding of the allosteric activators ornithine and IMP and of the inhibitor UMP. Elastase, trypsin, and chymotrypsin inactivate the enzyme and cleave the large subunit at a site approximately 15 kDa from the COOH terminus (demonstrated by NH2-terminal sequencing). UMP, IMP, and ornithine prevent this cleavage and the inactivation. Upon irradiation with ultraviolet light in the presence of [14C]UMP, the large subunit is labeled selectively and specifically. The labeling is inhibited by ornithine and IMP. Cleavage of the 15-kDa COOH-terminal region by prior treatment of the enzyme with trypsin prevents the labeling on subsequent irradiation with [14C]UMP. The [14C]UMP-labeled large subunit is resistant to proteolytic cleavage, but if it is treated with SDS the resistance is lost, indicating that UMP is cross-linked to its binding site and that the protection is due to conformational factors. In the presence of SDS, the labeled large subunit is cleaved by trypsin or by V8 staphylococcal protease at a site located 15 or 25 kDa, respectively, from the COOH terminus (shown by NH2-terminal sequencing), and only the 15- or 25-kDa fragments are labeled. Similarly, upon cleavage of the aspartyl-prolyl bonds of the [14C]UMP-labeled enzyme with 70% formic acid, labeling was found only in the 18.5-kDa fragment that contains the COOH terminus of the subunit. Thus, UMP binds to the COOH-terminal domain.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Cell attachment activity of the carboxyl-terminal domain of human thrombospondin expressed in Escherichia coli.

Thrombospondin (TS) is a multidomain, adhesive glycoprotein that associates with cells through multiple cell attachment sites. One of these has been located in or near the globular COOH-terminal region of TS by the monoclonal antibody (mAb) C6.7, which inhibits the attachment of human melanoma cells (G361) to TS. The epitope for C6.7 lies within the last 122 residues of the COOH-terminal domain of TS. This domain is distant from two known cell attachment sites in TS, namely the NH2-terminal heparin-binding domain and the CSVTCG sequences in the type I repeats, but is close to the RGDA sequence, an integrin-dependent cell attachment site. In order to separate the adhesive activity of the TS COOH-terminal domain from that of the RGD sequence, we have expressed the COOH-terminal 212 amino acids (residues 941-1152) of TS in Escherichia coli using the expression vector pRIT2T. The resultant fusion protein is effective in supporting G361 cell attachment even though it lacks the RGD sequence. In addition, the expressed protein inhibits adhesion of G361 cells to intact TS. mAb C6.7 blocks adhesion to the expressed TS COOH-terminal domain whereas GRGDSP and VTCG peptides are not inhibitory. These results show that the TS COOH-terminal domain contains a separate cell adhesion site, defined by mAb C6.7, that is distinct from the other adhesion sites of TS.     

Chimeras of the Flp and Cre recombinases: tests of the mode of cleavage by Flp and Cre

The Flp and Cre recombinases are members of the integrase family of tyrosine recombinases. Each protein consists of a 13 kDa NH(2)-terminal domain and a larger COOH-terminal domain that contains the active site of the enzyme. The COOH-terminal domain also contains the major determinants for the binding specificity of the recombinase to its cognate DNA binding site. All family members cleave the DNA by the attachment of a conserved nucleophilic tyrosine residue to the 3'-phosphate group at the sites of cleavage. In order to gain further insights into the determinants of the binding specificity and modes of cleavage of Flp and Cre, we have made chimeric proteins in which we have fused the NH(2)-terminal domain of Flp to the COOH-terminal domain of Cre ("Fre") and the NH(2)-terminal domain of Cre to the COOH-terminal domain of Flp ("Clp"). These chimeras have novel binding specificities in that they bind strongly to hybrid sites containing elements from both the Flp and Cre DNA targets but poorly to the native target sites.In this study we have taken advantage of the unique binding specificities of Fre and Clp to examine the mode of cleavage by Cre, Flp, Fre and Clp. We find that the COOH-terminal domain of the recombinases determines their mode of cleavage. Thus Flp and Clp cleave in trans whereas Cre and Fre cleave in cis. These results agree with the studies of Flp and with the cocrystal structure of Cre bound to its DNA target site. They disagree with our previous findings that Cre could carry out trans cleavage. We discuss the variations in the experimental approaches in order to reconcile the different results.     

Unique precursor structure of an extracellular protease, aqualysin I, with NH2- and COOH-terminal pro-sequences and its processing in Escherichia coli

Aqualysin I is a subtilisin-type serine protease which is secreted into the culture medium by Thermus aquaticus YT-1, an extremely thermophilic Gram-negative bacterium. The nucleotide sequence of the entire gene for aqualysin I was determined, and the deduced amino acid sequence suggests that aqualysin I is produced as a large precursor, consisting of at least three portions, an NH2-terminal pre-pro-sequence (127 amino acid residues), the protease (281 residues), and a COOH-terminal pro-sequence (105 residues). When the cloned gene was expressed in Escherichia coli cells, aqualysin I was not secreted. However, a precursor of aqualysin I lacking the NH2-terminal pre-pro-sequence (38-kDa protein) accumulated in the membrane fraction. On treatment of the membrane fraction at 65 degrees C, enzymatically active aqualysin I (28-kDa protein) was produced in the soluble fraction. When the active site Ser residue was replaced with Ala, cells expressing the mutant gene accumulated a 48-kDa protein in the outer membrane fraction. The 48-kDa protein lacked the NH2-terminal 14 amino acid residues of the precursor, and heat treatment did not cause any subsequent processing of this precursor. These results indicate that the NH2-terminal signal sequence is cleaved off by a signal peptidase of E. coli, and that the NH2- and COOH-terminal pro-sequences are removed through the proteolytic activity of aqualysin I itself, in that order. These findings indicate a unique four-domain structure for the aqualysin I precursor; the signal sequence, the NH2-terminal pro-sequence, mature aqualysin I, and the COOH-terminal pro-sequence, from the NH2 to the COOH terminus.     

Actin and tubulin binding domains of synapsins Ia and Ib

Synapsins Ia and Ib are neuronal phosphoproteins involved with the regulated clustering of small synaptic vesicles at the presynaptic terminus. In vitro they bind and bundle filaments of both actin and tubulin. Previously, we identified an actin binding domain in the NH2-terminal 25-kDa fragment (N25) generated by 2-nitro-5-thiocyanobenzoic acid (NTCB) cleavage of synapsin I and found that a complementary COOH-terminal 52-kDa portion of the molecule (N52) contained either a second actin binding site or a site of self-association [Petrucci, T. P., & Morrow, J. S. (1987) J. Cell. Biol. 105, 1355]. Using direct binding assays between actin, tubulin, and specific synapsin NTCB-derived peptides, we confirm the ability of purified N25 to bind but not bundle actin and demonstrate that the complementary N52 (or N50) fragments from synapsins Ia and Ib and a 14-kDa fragment derived from the middle of the molecule also associate directly with actin. An antibody specific for N25 inhibits the actin binding activity of N25 and the actin bundling but not the actin binding activity of intact synapsin I. Similar studies conducted with purified tubulin and tubulin immobilized on Sepharose demonstrate that both tubulin and actin bind at approximately the same sites in the NH2-terminal half of synapsin I. Although the fragments derived from the COOH terminus of both synapsin Ia and synapsin Ib (N40b/N34) were devoid of measurable actin binding activity after NTCB cleavage, they were specifically labeled in the intact molecule by a photoactivated cross-linker bound to F-actin. Collectively, these results indicate that synapsins Ia and Ib possess two actin and tubulin binding domains located in the NH2-terminal half of the molecule and suggest that a third actin binding domain is located in the COOH-terminal region. The NH2-terminal sites are found in NTCB peptides N25 and N14, while the third site, apparently of lower affinity, resides in N40b/N34. It is hypothesized that, in the intact molecule, the two NH2-terminal domains contribute to a single high-affinity actin and/or tubulin binding site in the "globular" head region of synapsin I, while the third actin binding domain constitutes the topographically distinct site required for the actin bundling activity of the native molecule. The 45-residue COOH extension that distinguishes synapsin Ia from synapsin Ib appears not to be involved with actin binding, since no differences were found in the ability of N40b and N34 to be photo-cross-linked to actin.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Proper protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum is required for attachment of a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor in plants

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) quality control processes recognize and eliminate misfolded proteins to maintain cellular protein homeostasis and prevent the accumulation of defective proteins in the secretory pathway. Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored proteins carry a glycolipid modification, which provides an efficient ER export signal and potentially prevents the entry into ER-associated degradation (ERAD), which is one of the major pathways for clearance of terminally misfolded proteins from the ER. Here, we analyzed the degradation routes of different misfolded glycoproteins carrying a C-terminal GPI-attachment signal peptide in Arabidopsis thaliana. We found that a fusion protein consisting of the misfolded extracellular domain from Arabidopsis STRUBBELIG and the GPI-anchor attachment sequence of COBRA1 was efficiently targeted to hydroxymethylglutaryl reductase degradation protein 1 complex-mediated ERAD without the detectable attachment of a GPI anchor. Non-native variants of the GPI-anchored lipid transfer protein 1 (LTPG1) that lack a severely misfolded domain, on the other hand, are modified with a GPI anchor and targeted to the vacuole for degradation. Impaired processing of the GPI-anchoring signal peptide by mutation of the cleavage site or in a GPI-transamidase-compromised mutant caused ER retention and routed the non-native LTPG1 to ERAD. Collectively, these results indicate that for severely misfolded proteins, ER quality control processes are dominant over ER export. For less severely misfolded proteins, the GPI anchor provides an efficient ER export signal resulting in transport to the vacuole.

Severely misfolded proteins carrying a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchor attachment sequence undergo a stringent quality control process in the endoplasmic reticulum that prevents GPI anchoring.     

Betaglycan can act as a dual modulator of TGF-beta access to signaling receptors: mapping of ligand binding and GAG attachment sites

Betaglycan, also known as the TGF-beta type III receptor, is a membrane- anchored proteoglycan that presents TGF-beta to the type II signaling receptor, a transmembrane serine/threonine kinase. The betaglycan extracellular region, which can be shed by cells into the medium, contains a NH2-terminal domain related to endoglin and a COOH-terminal domain related to uromodulin, sperm receptors Zp2 and 3, and pancreatic secretory granule GP-2 protein. We identified residues Ser535 and Ser546 in the uromodulin-related region as the glycosaminoglycan (GAG) attachment sites. Their mutation to alanine prevents GAG attachment but does not interfere with betaglycan stability or ability to bind and present TGF-beta to receptor II. Using a panel of deletion mutants, we found that TGF-beta binds to the NH2-terminal endoglin-related region of betaglycan. The remainder of the extracellular domain and the cytoplasmic domain are not required for presentation of TGF-beta to receptor II; however, membrane anchorage is required. Soluble betaglycan can bind TGF-beta but does not enhance binding to membrane receptors. In fact, recombinant soluble betaglycan acts as potent inhibitor of TGF-beta binding to membrane receptors and blocks TGF-beta action, this effect being particularly pronounced with the TGF-beta 2 isoform. The results suggest that release of betaglycan into the medium converts this enhancer of TGF-beta action into a TGF-beta antagonist.     

Limited tryptic digestion of Acanthamoeba myosin IA abolishes regulation of actin-activated ATPase activity by heavy chain phosphorylation

Acanthamoeba myosin IA is a globular protein composed of a 140-kDa heavy chain and a 17-kDa light chain. It expresses high actin-activated Mg2+-ATPase activity when one serine on the heavy chain is phosphorylated. We previously showed that chymotrypsin cleaves the heavy chain into a COOH-terminal 27-kDa peptide that can bind to F-actin but has no ATPase activity and a complex containing the NH2-terminal 112-kDa peptide and the light chain. The complex also binds F-actin and has full actin-activated Mg2+-ATPase activity when the regulatory site is phosphorylated. We have now localized the ATP binding site to within 27 kDa of the NH2 terminus and the regulatory phosphorylatable serine to a 20-kDa region between 38 and 58 kDa of the NH2 terminus. Under controlled conditions, trypsin cleaves the heavy chain at two sites, 38 and 112 kDa from the NH2 terminus, producing a COOH-terminal 27-kDa peptide similar to that produced by chymotrypsin and a complex consisting of an NH2-terminal kDa peptide, a central 74-kDa peptide, and the light chain. This complex is similar to the chymotryptic complex but for the cleavage which separates the 38- and 74-kDa peptides. The tryptic complex has full (K+, EDTA)-ATPase activity (the catalytic site is functional) and normal ATP-sensitive actin-binding properties. However, the actin-activated Mg2+-ATPase activity and the F-actin-binding characteristics of the tryptic complex are no longer sensitive to phosphorylation of the regulatory serine. Therefore, cleavage between the phosphorylation site and the ATP-binding site inhibits the effects of phosphorylation on actin binding and actin-activated Mg2+-ATPase activity without abolishing the interactions between the ATP- and actin-binding sites.     

Localization of the actin-binding sites of Acanthamoeba myosin IB and effect of limited proteolysis on its actin-activated Mg2+-ATPase activity

Acanthamoeba myosin IB contains a 125-kDa heavy chain that has high actin-activated Mg2+-ATPase activity when 1 serine residue is phosphorylated. The heavy chain contains two F-actin-binding sites, one associated with the catalytic site and a second which allows myosin IB to cross-link actin filaments but has no direct effect on catalytic activity. Tryptic digestion of the heavy chain initially produces an NH2-terminal 62-kDa peptide that contains the ATP-binding site and the regulatory phosphorylation site, and a COOH-terminal 68-kDa peptide. F-actin, in the absence of ATP, protects this site and tryptic cleavage then produces an NH2-terminal 80-kDa peptide. Both the 62- and the 80-kDa peptides retain the (NH+4,EDTA)-ATPase activity of native myosin IB and both bind to F-actin in an ATP-sensitive manner. However, only the 80-kDa peptide retains a major portion of the actin-activated Mg2+-ATPase activity. This activity requires phosphorylation of the 80-kDa peptide by myosin I heavy chain kinase but, in contrast to the activity of intact myosin IB, it has a simple, hyperbolic dependence on the concentration of F-actin. Also unlike myosin IB, the 80-kDa peptide cannot cross-link F-actin filaments indicating the presence of only a single actin-binding site. These results allow the assignment of the actin-binding site involved in catalytic activity to the region near, and possibly on both sides of, the tryptic cleavage site 62 kDa from the NH2 terminus, and the second actin-binding site to the COOH-terminal 45-kDa domain. Thus, the NH2-terminal 80 kDa of the myosin IB heavy chain is functionally similar to the 93-kDa subfragment 1 of muscle myosin and most likely has a similar organization of functional domains.