Speaking out about the social implications of science: the uneven legacy of H. J. Muller

H. J. Muller (1890-1967) was unusual as a scientist because he spoke out on numerous occasions about the uses and abuses of genetics in society. In this article, I follow Muller's efforts to do so and the consequences that they had on his career, his productivity as a research scientist, and his reputation. The shifting sites of Muller's work--which ranged from Columbia University to Texas, from Berlin to Moscow and Leningrad, from Madrid to Edinburgh, and from Amherst to Indiana University--made his activism unusual. Muller paid a price for his activism, and his reputation today is still marred by what most historians would consider risky judgments and reversals of position about genetics and society. My analysis is not a defense but rather an evaluation of the circumstances that led him to these positions and an analysis of the consequences of challenging society when scientists believe their science is being ignored or abused.     

A history of the Piltdown hoax.

The history of the Piltdown hoax and its importance in convincing the world of Darwin's theory is reviewed. Compelling evidence existed from the beginning that the find was a hoax or, at the very least, was not evidence for human evolution. Yet for decades, Piltdown was touted by textbooks, articles, and major museums (including the American Museum of Natural History in New York) as major evidence of human evolution. The hoax is an excellent illustration of the difficulties in drawing conclusions about evolution from fossils. The hoax convinced many people of the validity of Darwinism, but its final, definitive exposure did little to alter the basic views of most Darwinists.