Ctenophore-zooplankton-phytoplankton interactions in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, USA, during 1972-1977

Plankton dynamics at a station in lower Narragansett Bay, RIare compared for six summer and fall seasons, 1972–1977.In four of these years, initiation of the summer pulse of thectenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi was accompanied by a rapid declinein zooplankton abundance and a summer phytoplankton bloom. Terminationof the phytoplankton bloom coincided with depleted ctenophoreabundance and increased zooplankton biomass in two of the years.Yearly variations in the summer abundance of the diatom Skeletonemacostatum were positively related to the magnitude of the ctenophorepulse. The magnitude of ctenophore population was related tothe zooplankton biomass present at the start of the pulse. Theserelationships, the timing and magnitude of the plankton eventssuggest that M. leidyi regulated summer zooplankton and phytoplanktondynamics. Ctenophores may control phytoplankton blooms indirectlythrough their predation on herbivorous zooplankton and directlyby the nutrient excretion accompanying such grazing. This evidencethat a planktonic carnivore two trophic steps removed from thephytoplankton regulates the latter's dynamics in NarragansettBay is analogous to reported regulation of benthic algal (kelp)dynamics by the sea otter, lobster and various crabs throughtheir predation on herbivorous sea urchins. The factors responsiblefor the seasonal decrease in ctenophores remain unresolved;ctenophore predators on Mnemiopsis are absent in NarragansettBay. Infection by the vermiform larval anemone, Edwardsia lineata,grazing by the butterfish, Peprilus triacanthus, and changesin food availability, temperature and salinity likewise do notexplain this disappearance.     

Examination of Ulva bloom species richness and relative abundance reveals two cryptically co-occurring bloom species in Narragansett Bay,Rhode Island

Blooms caused by the green macroalga Ulva pose a serious threat to coastal ecosystems around the world. Despite numerous studies of the causes and consequences of these blooms, we still have a limited understanding of Ulva bloom species richness and abundance due to difficulties in identifying Ulva species using morphological features. Along the northeastern U.S. coastline, all blooms of distromatic Ulva blades were previously identified as Ulva lactuca. Recent molecular sequencing, however, discovered the presence of additional distromatic Ulva species. Therefore, in order to determine the relative abundance of Ulva species within blooms, we conducted monthly surveys at four Narragansett Bay, RI, sites representing a gradient of bloom severity. We found that the biomass of Ulva within blooms was a mix of Ulva compressa and Ulva rigida, not U. lactuca as previously reported. In contrast, sites not impacted by blooms that were located near the mouth of Narragansett Bay were dominated by U. lactuca. We also observed spatial and temporal differences in Ulva and total macroalgal diversity between bloom-impacted sites, indicating that Ulva bloom composition can be radically different between similar sites within close proximity. We discuss our results in the context of Ulva blooms worldwide, highlighting the need to definitively determine bloom species composition in order to fully understand bloom dynamics.     

Experimental evaluation of herbivory in the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi relevant to ctenophore-zooplankton-phytoplankton interactions in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, USA

Herbivory of Mnemiopsis leidyi and its interactions with phytoplanktonand non-gelatinous zooplankton were examined in small-scalemicrocosm experiments. Clearance rates for M. leidyi incubatedwith phytoplankton were generally negative, but ranged up to4.5 1 ctenophore^–1 day^–1 when the large (80 µmø) diatom Ditylum brightwelli was offered as a food source.These highest ingestion rates would provide Mnemiopsis withonly 21 % of its daily carbon requirements for respiration.Mean shrinkage of M. leidyi was 8.2–51% when incubatedwith phytoplankton. Although M. leidyi neither fed activelyon phytoplankton, nor satisfied its nutritional needs on sucha diet, the chain-forming diatom Skeletonema costatum becameentangled in mucus strands and balls produced by M. leidyi inthe absence of zooplankton. Attachment onto mucus occurred atphytoplankton concentrations commonly observed in NarragansettBay and may be important in the formation of "marine snow" duringsummer M. leidyi pulses; phytoplankton sinking rate and the"package size" available to herbivores would also be affected.The experiments support our previous hypothesis based on fieldobservations in Narragansett Bay that M. leidyi indirectly regulatesphytoplankton abundance there during the summer bloom as a consequenceof predation on zooplankton. The extent to which M. leidyi influencedphytoplankton dynamics in the microcosms was dependent on therelative abundance and physiological state of the three trophiclevels. A food web diagram for M. leidyi is presented.     

Nitrogen dynamics in lower Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. I. Uptake by size-fractionated phytoplankton populations

The contribution of nanoplankton (< 10 µm fraction)to winter – spring (1977 – 78) and summer (1978,1979) phytoplankton nitrogen dynamics in lower NarragansettBay was estimated from ammonium, nitrate and urea uptake ratesmeasured by ¹⁵N tracer methods. During the winter – spring,an average of 80% of chlorophyll a and nitrogen uptake was associatedwith phytoplankton retained by a 10 µm screen. In contrast,means of 51 – 58% of the summer chlorophyll a standingcrops and 64 – 70% of nitrogen uptake were associatedwith cells passing a 10 µm screen. Specific uptake ratesof winter – spring nanoplankton populations were consistentlylower than those of the total population. Specific uptake ratesof fractionated and unfractionated summer populations were notsignificantly different. Ammonium uptake averaged between 50and 67% of the total nitrogen uptake for both the total populationand the < 10µm fraction. The total population and the10 µm fraction displayed similar preferences for individualnitrogen species. Though composed of smaller cells, flagellatedominated nanoplankton assemblages may not necessarily takeup nitrogen at faster rates than diatom dominated assemblagesof larger phytoplankters in natural populations. ¹Present address: Australian Institute of Marine Science, P.M.B.No. 3, Townsville M.S.O., Qld. 4810, Australia     

Toxic Alexandrium peruvianum (Balech and de Mendiola) Balech and Tangen in Narragansett Bay,Rhode Island (USA)

Phytoplankton monitoring in Wickford Cove, Rhode Island, US (41°34′10.13″N, 71°26′45.76″W), located in Narragansett Bay, detected an unusual species of Alexandrium in the spring of 2009. Thecal plate analysis using brightfield and SEM microscopy revealed a plate morphology consistent with that of Alexandrium peruvianum (Balech and de Mendiola) Balech and Tangen. Molecular analyses indicated that the sequences of the SSU, ITS1, 5.8S, ITS2 and LSU through the D region of the 18S gene were similar to those of A. peruvianum from North Carolina. Toxin analyses of cells brought into culture revealed saxitoxins, gymnodimine and fast-acting spiroimines were present in the cultured clone. Saxitoxins detected included GTX 2, GTX3, B1, STX, C1 and C2. Also present in the Wickford cove isolates of A. peruvianum were 12-methyl gymnodimine and 13-desmethyl spirolide C. A. peruvianum was detected at four sites in lower Narragansett Bay: at two sites in Wickford and two sites in Jamestown, RI. A. peruvianum was observed in the spring of 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012 at maximum abundance levels ranging from tens of cells per liter to 14,000 cells L⁻¹. The discovery of A. peruvianum in Rhode Island coastal waters, with its potential threat to public health, is notable as it appears to be an emergent bloom species globally. The presence of A. peruvianum in Narragansett Bay is the third confirmed observation of this species on the Atlantic coast of North America. Monitoring efforts in the southern New England region should incorporate measures to detect the presence of A. peruvianum toxins.     

Seasonal variations of tintinnids (Ciliophora: Oligotrichida) in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, U.S.A.

Tintinnids exhibit a bimodal peak of abundance in NarragansettBay, with a minimum in late spring and a lesser peak in latesummer-early autumn, depending on location. Thirty-three speciesin eight genera were identified, with the fauna dominated bythe genus Tintinnopsis. Tintinnid abundance was not obviouslycorrelated with salinity, temperature, or nanoplankton chlorophyllconcentration. Patterns of change in seasonal abundance canserve as a framework for posing additional questions of therole tintinnids play in marine food webs.     

Community structure, biomass and productivity of size-fractionated summer phytoplankton populations in lower Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island

Seventeen size-fractionation experiments were carried out duringthe summer of 1979 to compare biomass and productivity in the< 10, <8 and <5 µm size fractions with that ofthe total phytoplankton community in surface waters of NarragansettBay. Flagellates and non-motile ultra-plankton passing 8 µmpolycarbonate filters dominated early summer phytoplankton populations,while diatoms and dinoflagellates retained by 10 µm nylonnetting dominated during the late summer. A significant numberof small diatoms and dinoflagellates were found in the 10–8µm size fraction. The > 10 µm size fraction accountedfor 50% of the chlorophyll a standing crop and 38% of surfaceproduction. The <8 µm fraction accounted for 39 and18% of the surface biomass and production. Production by the< 8 µm fraction exceeded half of the total communityproduction only during a mid-summer bloom of microflagellates.Mean assimilation numbers and calculated carbon doubling ratesin the <8 µm (2.8 g C g Chl a^–1 h^–1; 0.9day^–1)and<5 µm(1.7 g C g Chl a^–1h^–1; 0.5day^–1)size fractions were consistently lower than those of the totalpopulation (4.8 g C g Chl a^–1 h^–1; 1.3 day^–1)and the <10 µm size fraction (5.8 g C g Chl a^–1h^–1; 1.4 day ^–1). The results indicate that smalldiatoms and dinoflagellates in fractionated phytoplankton populationscan influence productivity out of proportion to their numbersor biomass. ¹Present address: Australian Institute of Marine Science, P.M.B.No. 3, Townsville M.S.O., Qld. 4810, Australia.     

The seasonal distribution of the marine diatom genus Chaetoceros Ehr. in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island (1981-1982)

The seasonal dynamics of the diatom genus Chaetoceros Ehrenbergwere investigated in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. Whole watersamples were collected weekly from July 1981 to October 1982at four locations in the lower Bay and were preserved, concentratedby settling and enumerated. Chaetoceros were most abundant inlate winter–early spring; a second peak occurred in thefall. As in many other temperate neritic areas, C. debilis,C. compressus and C. didymus were major components of die Chaetocerospopulation and could be found throughout the year. Species compositionand dynamics were quite similar at the Jerusalem, GSO Pier andWickford Harbor stations, but were markedly different in PettaquamscuttRiver, a reduced salinity tidal estuary.     

Molecular and morphological diversity of Narragansett Bay (RI,USA) Ulva (Ulvales,Chlorophyta) populations

Macroalgal bloom‐forming species occur in coastal systems worldwide. However, due to overlapping morphologies in some taxa, accurate taxonomic assessment and classification of these species can be quite challenging. We investigated the molecular and morphological characteristics of 153 specimens of bloom‐forming Ulva located in and around Narragansett Bay, RI, USA. We analyzed sequences of the nuclear internal transcribed spacer 1 region (ITS1) and the chloroplast‐encoded rbcL; based on the ITS1 data, we grouped the specimens into nine operational taxonomic units (OTUs). Eight of these OTUs have been previously reported to exist, while one is novel. Of the eight OTUs, all shared sequence identity with previously published sequences or differed by less than 1.5% sequence divergence for two molecular markers. Previously, 10 species names were reported for Ulva in Rhode Island (one blade and nine tube‐forming species) based upon morphological classification alone. Of our nine OTUs, three contained blade‐forming specimens (U. lactuca, U. compressa, U. rigida), one OTU had a blade with a tubular stipe, and six contained unbranched and/or branched tubular morphologies (one of these six, U. compressa, had both a blade and a tube morphology). While the three blade‐forming OTUs in Narragansett Bay can frequently be distinguished by careful observations of morphological characteristics, and spatial/temporal distribution, it is much more difficult to distinguish among the tube‐forming specimens based upon morphology or distribution alone. Our data support the molecular species concept for Ulva, and indicate that molecular‐based classifications of Ulva species are critical for proper species identification, and subsequent ecological assessment or mitigation of Ulva blooms.     

Population genetic analyses are consistent with the introduction of Ceramium secundatum (Ceramiaceae,Rhodophyta) to Narragansett Bay,Rhode Island,USA

During ongoing DNA barcode (COI‐5P) surveys of the macroalgal flora along the northwest Atlantic coast, we discovered a population of Ceramium secundatum in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, USA. This species is regarded as common and widespread in the northeast Atlantic, ranging from Norway to Morocco, but until now has not been reported from the western Atlantic. Several lines of evidence suggest that C. secundatum may be introduced to Narragansett Bay: (1) despite extensive collecting, specimens have only been obtained from a limited geographic range in the northwest Atlantic; (2) three other nonindigenous seaweed species are reportedly introduced in this region, which is thought to be a consequence of shipping; and (3) this species is introduced to South Africa and New Zealand. To investigate this suspected introduction, we applied population genetic analyses (using the cox2‐3 spacer) to compare the Narragansett Bay C. secundatum population to native populations in the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom. Collectively, analyses of biogeographical and molecular data indicate that C. secundatum is likely introduced to Narragansett Bay. The implications of this discovery are discussed.     

Evaluation of sediment profile imagery as a tool for assessing water quality in Greenwich Bay,Rhode Island,USA

The Benthic Habitat Quality (BHQ) index was used to assess habitat visible in sediment profile images (SPI) following hypoxia disturbance in a shallow (<10 m) estuarine embayment in Rhode Island, USA. We tested for associations between the BHQ, SPI features and water quality over several assessment windows (1, 3, 7, 14, and 28 days prior to imaging) and at multiple dissolved oxygen (DO) thresholds (2.0 mg l^?1, 2.9 mg l^?1, and 4.8 mg l^?1). Using categorical data analysis, we established empirical relationships between hypoxia prevalence and presence/absence of biogenic features visible in SPI. Fecal pellets, tubes, feeding pits, voids, mounds, and BHQ score were good affirmative features, meaning that their presence (or score greater than 5) indicated a high probability of good water quality. However, low sensitivity to hypoxia precluded their usefulness as indicators, and was attributed to rarity in images and to factors acting on time intervals longer than those examined, e.g. long-term organic enrichment or hypoxia. Burrow structures and the apparent redox potential discontinuity (aRPD), or oxidized layer of surface sediment, were good discriminatory features, with high sensitivity and specificity for both hypoxia and normoxia. Both were strong surrogates for water quality over multiple assessment windows and DO thresholds, and had the highest overall predictive values. We conclude that SPI images can be used to widen the spatial extent of water quality monitoring efforts by utilizing the relationships between aRPD, burrows and hypoxia prevalence.     

基于液氮研磨法的流式细胞术检测马铃薯倍性的研究

染色体组倍性鉴定是马铃薯种质资源评价的重要内容,流式细胞仪能够快速、准确地对细胞核DNA含量进行测定,从而广泛用于检测植物染色体组倍性。建立适于马铃薯倍性鉴定的高通量流式细胞术体系,对马铃薯育种工作提供依据。以20份马铃薯合作88孤雌诱导后代为材料,用液氮研磨法制备叶片细胞核悬液,并将其与传统刀片切碎法制备的细胞核悬液进行比较,对已知四倍体马铃薯合作88和二倍体马铃薯IVP101进行染色体倍性测定,结果发现这两种方法在倍性测定结果之间无明显差异,但是液氮研磨法操作简单、耗时少。基于液氮研磨法的流式细胞术可快速、准确检测其倍性。另外,在液氮研磨法中,对细胞核悬液染色时间的长短(从15 min到12 h)并不会影响倍性测定结果,从而方便研究人员在实际操作中灵活选择染色时间。     

Distribution and activity of bacteria in the headwaters of the Rhode River Estuary,Maryland, USA

A transect along the axis of the headwaters of a tidal estuary was sampled for microbial, nutrient, and physical parameters. Chlorophylla averaged 42g 1^–1 and phytoplankton comprised an estimated 80% of the total microbial biomass as determined by adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Bacterial concentrations ranged from 0.3–53.9×10⁶ cells ml^–1 and comprised about 4% of the total living microbial biomass. Bacterial production, determined by³H-methyl-thymidine incorporation was about 0.05–2.09× 10⁹ cells 1^–1 h^–1, with specific growth rates of 0.26–1.69 d^–1. Most bacterial production was retained on 0.2m pore size filters, but passed through 1.0m filters. Significant positive correlations were found between all biomass measures and most nutrient measures with the exception of dissolved inorganic nitrogen nutrients where correlations were negative. Seasonal variability was evident in all parameters and variability among the stations was evident in most. The results suggest that bacterial production requires a significant carbon input, likely derived from autotrophic production, and that microbial trophic interactions are important.     

Recurrent vernal presence of the toxic Alexandrium tamarense/Alexandrium fundyense (Dinoflagellata) species complex in Narragansett Bay,USA

The vernal occurrence of toxic dinoflagellates in the Alexandrium tamarense/Alexandrium fundyense species complex in an enclosed embayment of Narragansett Bay (Wickford Cove, Rhode Island) was documented during 2005 and 2009–2012. This is the first report of regular appearance of the Alexandrium fundyense/Alexandrium tamarense species complex in Narragansett Bay. Thecal plate analysis of clonal isolates using SEM revealed cells morphologically consistent with both Alexandrium tamarense Lebour (Balech) and Alexandrium fundyense Balech. Additionally, molecular analyses confirmed that the partial sequences for 18S through the D1–D2 region of 28S were consistent with the identity of the two Alexandrium species. Toxin analyses revealed the presence of a suite of toxins (C1/2, B1 (GTX-5), STX, GTX-2/3. Neo, and GTX-1/4) in both Alexandrium tamarense (6.31 fmol cell⁻¹ STX equiv.) and Alexandrium fundyense (9.56 fmol cell⁻¹ STX equiv.) isolated from Wickford Cove; the toxicity of a Narragansett Bay Alexandrium peruvianum isolate (1.79 fmol cell⁻¹ STX equiv.) was also determined. Combined Alexandrium tamarense/Alexandrium fundyense abundance in Wickford Cove reached a peak abundance of 1280 cells L⁻¹ (May of 2010), with the combined abundance routinely exceeding levels leading to shellfishing closures in other systems. The toxic Alexandrium tamarense/Alexandrium fundyense species complex appears to be a regular component of the lower Narragansett Bay phytoplankton community, either newly emergent or previously overlooked by extant monitoring programs.     

Flow Cytometry for Determination of the Efficacy of Contact Lens Disinfecting Solutions against Acanthamoeba spp.

Flow cytometric analyses of cellular staining with fluorescent viability dyes and direct microscopic observations of methylene blue exclusion were compared for evaluation of the effects of a chlorhexidine gluconate-based contact lens disinfectant solution and a polyhexamethylene biguanide solution against cysts and trophozoites of Acanthamoeba castellanii and Acanthamoeba polyphaga. The flow cytometric procedure with propidium iodide (used to stain dead cells) indicated that more than 90% of trophozoites of both species (inocula of 10⁵ to 10⁶/ml) at 22°C lost their viability after 4 h of exposure to chlorhexidine. When propidium iodide was used in combination with fluorescein diacetate (for live cells), the apparent number of propidium iodide-stained cells was reduced, but the relative efficacies of the two biguanide solutions appeared unchanged from those evident with the single dyes; the chlorhexidine solution was more effective than the polyhexamethylene biguanide solution. Similar data were obtained with the more cumbersome methylene blue exclusion procedure. Flow cytometric analyses provided a statistically reproducible and rapid procedure for determining the relative antiamoebal efficacies of the disinfecting solutions.