Bird fleas (Insecta: Siphonaptera): taxonomic diversity, biogeographical distribution

If Mammals are the primary hosts of Siphonaptera, 6% of them have changed their trophic appetency for Birds. What are the reasons, what are the adaptations to be adopted by Fleas, what are the families or species groups of fleas concerned, and at last what are the host-families? As to this last question, it is clear that deviation was ecological but not phyletical.     

Digenean parasites of Chinese marine fishes: a list of species, hosts and geographical distribution

In the literature, 630 species of Digenea (Trematoda) have been reported from Chinese marine fishes. These belong to 209 genera and 35 families. The names of these species, along with their hosts, geographical distribution and records, are listed in this paper.     

The nature and evolution of the association among digeneans, molluscs and fishes

Patterns of association of digenean families and their mollusc and vertebrate hosts are assessed by way of a new database containing information on over 1000 species of digeneans for life-cycles and over 5000 species from fishes. Analysis of the distribution of digenean families in molluscs suggests that the group was associated primitively with gastropods and that infection of polychaetes, bivalves and scaphopods are all the results of host-switching. For the vertebrates, infections of agnathans and chondrichthyans are apparently the result of host-switching from teleosts. For digenean families the ratio of orders of fishes infected to superfamilies of molluscs infected ranges from 0.5 (Mesometridae) to 16 (Bivesiculidae) and has a mean of 5.6. Individual patterns of host association of 13 digenean families and superfamilies are reviewed. Two, Bucephalidae and Sanguinicolidae, are exceptional in infecting a range of first intermediate hosts qualitatively as broad as their range of definitive hosts. No well-studied taxon shows narrower association with vertebrate than with mollusc clades. The range of definitive hosts of digeneans is characteristically defined by eco-physiological similarity rather than phylogenetic relationship. The range of associations of digenean families with mollusc taxa is generally much narrower. These data are considered in the light of ideas about the significance of different forms of host association. If Manter's Second Rule (the longer the association with a host group, the more pronounced the specificity exhibited by the parasite group) is invoked, then the data may suggest that the Digenea first parasitised molluscs before adopting vertebrate hosts. This interpretation is consistent with most previous ideas about the evolution of the Digenea but contrary to current interpretations based on the monophyly of the Neodermata. The basis of Manter's Second Rule is, however, considered too flimsy for this interpretation to be robust. Problems of the inference of the evolution of patterns of parasitism in the Neodermata are discussed and considered so intractable that the truth may be presently unknowable.     

Diversity in the Monogenea and Digenea: does lifestyle matter?

If the cestodes are excluded, then the parasitic platyhelminths of fishes divide neatly into the external and monoxenous Monogenea and the internal and heteroxenous Digenea. Both groups have apparently had long associations of coevolution, host switching and adaptation with fishes and have become highly successful in their respective habitats. Current estimates of species richness for the two groups suggest that they may be remarkably similar. Here we consider the nature of the diversity of the Monogenea and Digenea of fishes in terms of richness of species and higher taxa to determine what processes may be responsible for observed differences. The Monogenea includes at least two super-genera (Dactylogyrus and Gyrodactylus) each of which has hundreds of species; no comparable genera are found in the Digenea. Possible reasons for this difference include the higher host specificity of monogeneans and their shorter generation time. If allowance is made for the vagaries of taxonomic 'lumping' and 'splitting', then there are probably comparable numbers of families of monogeneans and digeneans in fishes. However, the nature of the families differ profoundly. Richness in higher taxa (families) in the Digenea is explicable in terms of processes that appear to have been unimportant in the Monogenea. Readily identifiable sources of diversity in the Digenea are: recolonisation of fishes by taxa that arose in association with tetrapods; adoption of new sites within hosts; adoption of new diets and feeding mechanisms; adaptations relating to the exploitation of ecologically similar groups of fishes and second intermediate hosts; and adaptations relating to the exploitation of phylogenetic lineages of molluscs. In contrast, most higher- level monogenean diversity (other than that associated with the subclasses) relates principally to morphological specialisation for attachment by the haptor.     

Schistosoma mansoni: Cloning by microsurgical transplantation of sporocysts

Development of a method of infecting of the molluscan host by microsurgical transplantation of the parasite's sporocysts enables the researcher to maintain the host cycle of Schistosoma mansoni exclusively by asexual means and without the participation of a vertebrate host. After transplantation, larval morphogenesis becomes altered to form an additional generation of sporocysts. These invade the digestive gland of the recipient mollusc progressively, producing normally infective cercariae. The maintenance of the life cycle of S. mansoni in the laboratory for 1 year, solely in the mollusc, has been obtained through six successive transplantations. Thus, a true cloning of S. mansoni has been achieved, the original transplant material being derived from a monomiracidial infection. From the practical viewpoint, this transplantation technique is of definite utility in the maintenance of the cycle, the vertebrate stage having been eliminated. From the theoretical viewpoint, unexpected analogies become apparent with the two types of larval demography found in Digenea (Digenea with sporocyst and Digenea with rediae).     

The origins of parasitism in the platyhelminthes

Symbiotic associations have arisen independently in several groups of the largely free-living turbellarians. Morphological adaptations of turbellarians to a symbiotic way of life include suckers and adhesive glands for attachment, elaborate systems of microvilli and other epidermal structures for absorption of food, glands for the formation of cysts, cocoons and cement material, and lack of a pharynx and intestine in some species. However, many species closely resemble their free-living relatives. Egg production is greatly increased at least in some species, and life cycles are always direct. Food of symbiotic turbellarians consists of host food and/or host tissue. Ectosymbiotes show fewer physiological adaptations than entosymbiotes. The major groups of parasitic Platyhehninthes (Trematoda Aspidogastrea, Trematoda Digenea, Monogenea, Udonellidea, Cestoda including Gyrocotylidea, Amphilinidea and Eucestoda), form one monophylum, the Neodermata, characterized by a neodermis (tegument) replacing the larval epidermis, epidermal cilia with a single horizontal rootlet, sensory receptors with electron-dense collars, spermatozoa with axonemes incorporated in the sperm body by proximodistal fusion, and protonephridial flame bulbs formed by two cells each contributing a row of longitudinal ribs to the filtration apparatus. The sister group of the Neodermata is unknown but is likely to be a large taxon including the Proseriata and some other turbellarian groups. Among the Neodennata, the Aspidogastrea is likely to be the most archaic group, as indicated by DNA studies, morphology, life cycles and physiology. Aspidogastreans can survive for many days or even weeks outside a host in simple media, they show little host specificity, and have an astonishingly complex nervous system and many types of sensory receptors, both in the larva and the adult. It is suggested that Aspidogastrea were originally parasites of mlluscs (and possibly arthropods and other invertebrates) and that they are archaic forms which have remained at a stage where vertebrates represent facultative hosts or obligatory final hosts into which only the very last stages of the life cycle (maturation of the gonads) have been transferred. The complex life cycles of Digenea have evolved from the simple aspidogastrean ones by intercalation of multiplicative larval stages (sporocysts, rediae) in the mollusc host, and of cercarial stages ensuring dispersal to the now obligatory final host. Monogenea may have lost the molluscan host or evolved before the early neodermatans had acquired it. Cestoda either replaced the original molluscan with an arthropod host, retained an original arthropod host or evolved from an early neodermatan before molluscan hosts had been acquired, newly acquiring an arthropod host. Horizontal gene transfer and implications for mosaic evolution in the Platyhehninthes are discussed.     

The ionic requirements for regulation by molluscan thin filaments

Initial studies on molluscan muscle regulation indicated that thin filaments do not confer Ca2+-dependence on vertebrate myosin ATPase, and hence that molluscan muscles do not possess thin filament-linked regulatory systems. Subsequently it was shown that molluscan thin filaments do, in fact, impart Ca2+-sensitivity but only at Mg2+ concentrations greater than those used in the earlier studies. In the present study it is shown that Mg2+ prevents significant dissociation of tropomyosin and troponin subunits from thin filaments at the low monovalent ion concentrations typically employed to assay actomyosin ATPase; as a result Mg2+ allows expression of the molluscan thin filament regulatory system under these conditions.     

Book reviews

Book Reviewed in this article Birds of the North Solomons. Wau Ecology Institute Handbook No. 8 Don Hadden An Atlas of Distribution of the Freshwater Fish Families of the World Tim M. Berra Estimating the Size of Animal Populations J. G. Blower, L. M. Cook & J. A. Bishop The Ecology of Pests: Some Australian Case Histories R.L. Kitching and R.E. Jones (eds) Demography and Evolution in Plant Populations Edited by Otto Solbrig, Botanical Monographs Volume 15     

Geographical range and speciation in fossil and living molluscs

The notion of a positive relation between geographical range and speciation rate or speciation probability may go back to Darwin, but a negative relation between these parameters is equally plausible. Here, we test these alternatives in fossil and living molluscan taxa. Late Cretaceous gastropod genera exhibit a strong negative relation between the geographical ranges of constituent species and speciation rate per species per million years; this result is robust to sampling biases against small-bodied taxa and is not attributable to phylogenetic effects. They also exhibit weak inverse or non-significant relations between geographical range and (i) the total number of species produced over the 18 million year timeframe, and (ii) the number of species in a single timeplane. Sister-group comparisons using extant molluscan species also show a non-significant relation between median geographical range and species richness of genera. These results support the view that the factors promoting broad geographical ranges also tend to damp speciation rates. They also demonstrate that a strong inverse relation between per-species speciation rate and geographical range need not be reflected in analyses conducted within a single timeplane, underscoring the inadequacy of treating net speciation as a proxy for raw per-taxon rates.     

Immune mechanisms in trematode-snail interactions

Digenetic trematodes, including several species of medical and veterinary significance, nearly all depend on molluscs (usually gastropods) as hosts for asexual reproduction. The molluscan internal defence system, although lacking many of the familiar features of the vertebrate immune system, may pose a substantial obstacle to digenean development. In this article, Wil van der Knaap and Eric Loker discuss the manner in which this system is mobilized to kill larval trematodes and the real and putative mechanisms of digenean evasion of molluscan immune responses. These two possible outcomes of trematode-snail associations make them intriguing model systems for exploring processes of parasite infectivity and host resistance.     

A fossil record for trematodes: extent and potential uses

Some extant parasitic flatworms (Phylum Platyhelminthes, Class Trematoda, Order Digenea) produce pits on the interior shell surface of their molluscan bivalve hosts. Based on comparisons of pits in Tertiary and Quaternary Gemma, Parastarte and Transennella (Family Veneridae), we establish a history of association between trematodes and these host genera spanning over 5 My in North America. This is the first report of a fossil record for the Trematoda. Similar pits are also present in many other bivalve genera (both fossil and living species), indicating that a substantial fossil record may exist for parasitic flatworms. The identification of parasitic infections from fossil shells may provide a new dimension for the study of the evolutionary biology, paleoecology and biogeography of host-parasite associations. □ Trematoda, trace fossils, Veneridae, paleoecology. life-history evolution, parasites.     

The global distribution and evolutionary history of the pT26-2 archaeal plasmid family

Although plasmids play an important role in biological evolution, the number of plasmid families well-characterized in terms of geographical distribution and evolution remains limited, especially in archaea. Here, we describe the first systematic study of an archaeal plasmid family, the pT26-2 plasmid family. The in-depth analysis of the distribution, biogeography and host–plasmid co-evolution patterns of 26 integrated and 3 extrachromosomal plasmids of this plasmid family shows that they are widespread in Thermococcales and Methanococcales isolated from around the globe but are restricted to these two orders. All members of the family share seven core genes but employ different integration and replication strategies. Phylogenetic analysis of the core genes and CRISPR spacer distribution suggests that plasmids of the pT26-2 family evolved with their hosts independently in Thermococcales and Methanococcales, despite these hosts exhibiting similar geographic distribution. Remarkably, core genes are conserved even in integrated plasmids that have lost replication genes and/or replication origins suggesting that they may be beneficial for their hosts. We hypothesize that the core proteins encode for a novel type of DNA/protein transfer mechanism, explaining the widespread oceanic distribution of the pT26-2 plasmid family.     

Troponin-like proteins from muscles of the scallop, Aequipecten irradians.

Ca2+ regulation of molluscan actomyosin adenosine triphosphatase is known to be associated with the myosin molecule. Sodium dodecyl sulphate/polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis, however, also suggests the possible presence of troponin, a thin-filament-linked Ca2+-regulatory complex. In the present study, scallop troponin and tropomyosin were prepared and complexed with rabbit actin; the resulting synthetic thin filaments form a Ca2+-dependent actomyosin adenosine triphosphatase with Ca2+-insensitive rabbit myosin, indicating that the troponin in scallops is potentially functional. Scallop troponin I was isolated and mixed with chicken troponin C and troponin T, forming a functional hybrid troponin complex, indicating that scallop and vertebrate troponins may act by a common mechanism. Densitometry of sodium dodecyl sulphate/polyacrylamide gels reveals that in synthetic thin filaments there are larger amounts of troponin than are present in native thin filaments. Amounts present in the intact muscle were not determined.     

A macroevolutionary mosaic: episodic host-switching, geographical colonization and diversification in complex host–parasite systems

Aim  To integrate ecological fitting, the oscillation hypothesis and the taxon pulse hypothesis into a coherent null model for the evolution of complex host–parasite associations.
Location  Global.
Methods  This paper reviews and synthesizes literature that focuses on phylogenetic analyses and reciprocal mapping of a model system of hosts and their parasites to determine patterns of host–parasite associations and geographical distributions through time.
Results  Host-switching and geographical dispersal of parasites are common phenomena, occurring on many temporal and spatial scales. Diversification involving both co-evolution and colonization explains complex host–parasite associations. Across the expanse of Earth history, the major radiations in host–parasite assemblages have been preceded by ecological disruption, ecological breakdown and host-switching in a context that can be defined by the concept of ecological fitting. This cyclical process sets the stage for co-diversification during periods of relative stability, punctuated by host-switching during episodes of regional to global environmental disruption and climatological change.
Main conclusions  Most observed host–parasite associations can be explained by an historical interaction between ecological fitting, oscillation (episodes of increasing host range alternating with isolation on particular hosts) and taxon pulses (cyclical episodes of expansion and isolation in geographical range). Major episodes of environmental change appear to be the main drivers for both the persistence and diversification of host–parasite systems, creating opportunities for host-switching during periods of geographical expansion and allowing for co-evolution and co-speciation during periods of geographical isolation.     

The transmission of digenetic trematodes: style, elegance, complexity

Traditionally, the field of parasitology has dealt with eukaryoticanimals, to the exclusion of viruses, bacteria, fungi, etc.,which is the way it will be approached here. The focus of thepresent paper will be on certain ecological aspects of the lifecycles and life-history strategies employed by the Digenea,a diverse group of platyhelminths that includes some 25,000species. More specifically, the review will consider the natureof host/parasite interactions within molluscan intermediatehosts and the manner in which these interactions, or lack thereof,function in structuring trematode infracommunities within thesemolluscan intermediate hosts. Literature in this area suggeststhat predation/competition may be a significant structuringforce for infracommunities in certain marine prosobranchs, butnot others, and that temporal/spatial factors may be involvedas structuring mechanisms in at least some freshwater pulmonates.     

Characterization of homologous divalent metal ion binding sites of vertebrate and molluscan myosins using electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy.

The binding of Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ and Mn²⁺ to myosins from rabbit skeletal muscle, scallop striated adductor muscle and clam adductor muscle has been investigated. All three myosins bind two moles of divalent metal ion non-specifically and with high affinity (Mn²⁺ > Ca²⁺ > Mg²⁺). In addition, the molluscan myosins bind about a further two moles of Ca²⁺ specifically. Although rabbit myosin binds some Ca²⁺ in the presence of an excess of free Mg²⁺, this binding occurs at the nonspecific sites and should not be taken as evidence for a myosin-linked regulatory system of the type found in molluscan muscles. If such a system exists in vertebrate skeletal muscle, the homologous Ca²⁺-specific sites must be lost during the early stages of the myosin preparation.The characteristic electron paramagnetic resonance spectrum of the bound Mn²⁺ was utilized to confirm the homology of the non-specific sites in vertebrate and molluscan myosins. The sites are located on the “regulatory” class of light chain. Mn²⁺ bound to scallop myosin has a broad electron paramagnetic resonance spectrum, in contrast to the well-resolved spectra that it gives when bound to many other myosin species. This situation was exploited to identify homologous nonspecific, divalent metal-ion sites on the regulatory light chains from a variety of muscle types, including frog skeletal, rabbit cardiac, chicken gizzard and molluscan adductor muscles. When these light chains are combined with desensitized scallop myofibrils the electron paramagnetic resonance spectra of Mn²⁺ bound to the resultant hybrids are dominated by the signal from the non-specific site of the foreign regulatory light chain.     

Biochemical and immunological adaptation in schistosome parasitism

The objective of this review is to clarify aspects of immunological and biochemical adaptations of schistosomes to their intermediate and final mammalian hosts. Adaptations to the mammalian hosts are traced in relation to cercarial penetration of mammalian skin, glucose transport and metabolism. The unusual ability of schistosome surface membrane to escape immune recognition and damage are reviewed. Moreover, the behavioural changes induced in the intermediate hosts by schistosomes are considered. The evolutionary adaptation to molluscan hosts aims to increase the probability of transmission of the parasite into its mammalian host. This review inspires more hope for further design of anti-schistosome drugs through disturbing aspects of biochemical and immunological adaptations in schistosome parasitism.     

软体动物维甲酸X受体研究进展

维甲酸X受体(retinoid X receptor,RXR)作为配体依赖的转录因子,是核受体超家族重要的一员.脊椎动物RXR与配体及其辅调节因子相互作用,调控基因的协调表达,在胚胎发育、细胞分化、新陈代谢等许多生理过程中起着重要作用.软体动物RXR的研究因其与腹足类性畸变的关系越来越受到关注.本文综述了目前获得的软体动物RXR基因的结构,比较了软体动物RXR基因各功能结构域与人类和其他动物RXR的相似性.以RXR编码区的氨基酸序列为基础,构建了系统进化树,发现软体动物RXR与脊索动物而不是其他无脊椎动物的RXR聚成一支.软体动物和甲壳动物不同RXR亚型的氨基酸序列比较发现,两类动物可能存在不同的剪切酶或剪切位点.此外论文还针对软体动物RXR的配体、二聚体伙伴以及生理功能等方面的研究进行了综述.