Cultivation and processing of Linum usitatissimum and Camelina sativa in southern Scandinavia during the Roman Iron Age

Charred seed conglomerates of Linum usitatissimum (flax) and Camelina sativa (gold of pleasure) were found at Uppåkra 2:25, a Roman Iron Age site in Skåne, southern Sweden. The conglomerates showed no mixing with each other, as they were almost pure flax and gold of pleasure respectively. Together with other archaeobotanical data from the site, they provide new evidence on the use, processing and cultivation of these two plants in early Iron Age in Scandinavia. Metric analyses were applied to flax seeds from both conglomerates and other contexts at this site, and compared to seed assemblages from other Roman Iron Age sites in Europe. The comparison showed that the flax cultivation at Uppåkra 2:25 was intended for the production of oil-rich seeds. The contextual relationship indicates that both flax and gold of pleasure seeds were processed in a similar way and used for oil. Furthermore, the pure seed conglomerate of gold of pleasure suggests that this plant was not a weed, but rather an intentionally grown crop which was cultivated separately from flax.     

Weed finds as indicators for the cultivation regime of the early Neolithic Bandkeramik culture?

Ethnographic data combined with the characteristics of the weed species from Bandkeramik settlement sites give hints for the reconstruction of Early Neolithic agricultural practises in Central Europe. In contrast to the Balkan situation with a high diversity in cultivated crops, Bandkeramik field management can be reconstructed as a simple agricultural system with emphasis on summer crop growing. Permanent fields were treated with hoes, digging sticks or similar tools, sown in spring and grazed in autumn and winter. The intensity of field management seems to increase through time as shown by diachrone comparison of archaeobotanical data from Neolithic, Iron Age and Roman times. The absence of winter-cereals such as naked wheat, grown in the Balkan Peninsula, gives a hint of a certain emphasis on stock breeding. Summer crop growing would have had the advantage that the Bandkeramik fields could be grazed after harvest until next spring and would therefore be manured at the same time.     

Questioning the relevance of shifting cultivation to Neolithic farming in the loess belt of Europe: evidence from the Hambach Forest experiment

Despite widespread criticism, the shifting cultivation model continues to inform discussion of Neolithic farming in Europe, beginning with early Neolithic (Linearbandkeramik or LBK) communities concentrated in the loess belt of western-central Europe. Hundreds of LBK and later Neolithic sites have been excavated in this region and many of them sampled for charred plant remains. Archaeobotanical data on the weed floras harvested with crops provide the most direct archaeological evidence of crop husbandry practices, including the permanence of crop fields, but have played a limited role in the debate over shifting cultivation. The Hambach Forest experiment, conducted in the 1970s-80s near Cologne, Germany, provides valuable comparative data on the weed floras growing in newly cleared cultivation plots in an area of longlived mixed oak woodland on loess-based soil. Correspondence analysis of the Hambach weed survey data suggests that weed floras of fields managed under a shifting cultivation regime would be rich in perennial species, including woodland perennials. Comparison of these results with Neolithic weed assemblages from the loess belt of western-central Europe strongly suggests that Neolithic crop fields were not recently cleared of woodland vegetation but were long-established. Received September 5, 2001 / Accepted February 26, 2002     

Grains from ear to ear: the morphology of spelt and free-threshing wheat from Roman Mursa (Osijek), Croatia

Cereals were a significant part of the Roman diet, yet knowledge about their cultivation, distribution and consumption in certain regions is particularly lacking. In Europe, studies generally suggest that from the Iron Age to the Roman period there was a reduction in barley cultivation, an increase in spelt over emmer, a preference for free-threshing wheat over glume wheats, as well as the increased cultivation of rye and oats. Up till now, there was little evidence on crop cultivation in Croatia, but the discovery of around 24,000 cereal grains from the oven of a 2nd-4th c. ad Roman villa in the modern town of Osijek provides important insights into diet and subsistence in the Roman province of Pannonia. Here, the dominance of free-threshing wheat, spelt and rye with only a relatively small amount of other cereals, chaff and weeds corresponds well with this pattern seen elsewhere in Europe. The relatively clean grain deposit suggests that this sample represents processed grain ready for final food preparation and consumption at the villa. The morphological variation and overlap seen between the carbonised spelt and free-threshing wheat grains, as well as the identification of ‘stunted’ cereal grains, is also discussed.

     

Geography and end use drive the diversification of worldwide winter rye populations

To meet the current challenges in human food production, improved understanding of the genetic diversity of crop species that maximizes the selection efficacy in breeding programs is needed. The present study offers new insights into the diversity, genetic structure and demographic history of cultivated rye (Secale cereale L.). We genotyped 620 individuals from 14 global rye populations with a different end use (grain or forage) at 32 genome‐wide simple sequence repeat markers. We reveal the relationships among these populations, their sizes and the timing of domestication events using population genetics and model‐based inference with approximate Bayesian computation. Our main results demonstrate (i) a high within‐population variation and genetic diversity, (ii) an unexpected absence of reduction in diversity with an increasing improvement level and (iii) patterns suggestive of multiple domestication events. We suggest that the main drivers of diversification of winter rye are the end use of rye in two early regions of cultivation: rye forage in the Mediterranean area and grain in northeast Europe. The lower diversity and stronger differentiation of eastern European populations were most likely due to more intensive cultivation and breeding of rye in this region, in contrast to the Mediterranean region where it was considered a secondary crop or even a weed. We discuss the relevance of our results for the management of gene bank resources and the pitfalls of inference methods applied to crop domestication due to violation of model assumptions and model complexity.     

Palaeobotanical evidence for agricultural activities in the Eifel region during the Holocene: plant macro-remain and pollen analyses from sediments of three maar lakes in the Quaternary Westeifel Volcanic Field (Germany, Rheinland-Pfalz)

As a part of the ELSA-project (Eifel Laminated Sediment Archive) new pollen and plant macro-remain analyses have been carried out on a series of Holocene lacustrine sediments from three open maar lakes of the Quaternary Westeifel Volcanic Field. In combination with already existing pollen analyses, the archaeological record and written sources, the present study casts new light on settlement activities and henceforth the development of agriculture from the prehistoric to historic times in this region. While there are clues that wood pasturing was practised in the Eifel region from the Michelsberg Culture onwards (c. 4300 cal. b.c.), the Vulkaneifel is a remote area with relatively poor soils and a humid climate and was not constantly settled until the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age, when cereal pollen was found regularly in the deposits. Plant macro-remains (chaff), which give us direct evidence for arable agriculture in the surroundings of the maars, were also found in layers belonging to the Early Bronze Age (c. 1900 cal. b.c.). At the same time we can observe the massive spread of Fagus sylvatica (beech) in all pollen diagrams, which was most probably caused by a combination of climatic, anthropogenic and competitive factors. Later impacts of agriculture were an abundance of crop weeds and pollen in the following Middle Bronze Age. Nevertheless human impact remained discontinuous until the Urnfield Culture (1200–800 cal. b.c.). A layer of weeds dating at the end of the Urnfield Culture was found and also flax (Linum usitatissimum) cultivation first becomes apparent. However, the subsequent Iron Age and Roman Period reveal only crop weeds and cereal pollen in slightly higher concentrations, but the abundance of Poaceae pollen at this time is most probably consistent with grazing activities. There follows compelling evidence of the importance of flax cultivation and processing at the maars from the Merovingian Period (5th century a.d.) onwards. A detailed insight into the agriculture of the High Medieval comes from flash flood layers of the 14th century a.d., where remains of Secale cereale (rye) and crop weeds reflect winter-sown cultivation of rye. Cannabis sativa (hemp) was also cultivated and processed during the medieval. Finally we can trace the Prussian reforestation in the 19th century a.d., with an increase in Pinus sylvestris (pine) and Picea abies (fir), by both pollen and plant macro-remains.     

Flax seed production: evidence from the early Iron Age site of Tel Beth-Shean, Israel and from written sources

For thousands of years, flax was a winter crop of major importance in the ancient Levant, second only to wheat and barley. It was cultivated from the beginning of the early Neolithic period through to Roman times and it is still grown there today. Flax seeds (linseed) contain high concentrations of two essential polyunsaturated fatty acids—linoleic acid (ω-6) and α-linolenic acid (ω-3), which cannot be produced by the human body. Their oxidation occurs rapidly in the air. So, long term storage of linseed needed airtight containers, and tightly stoppered bottles could be used to keep its oil as a remedy. However, were flax seeds consumed as a food, oil or medicament in ancient periods? How commonly were flax seeds eaten? From archaeobotanical finds of flax seed, it is difficult to determine whether the flax was cultivated for fibres alone or for its seeds that can be cold-pressed to release the valuable oil. We have therefore studied ancient written documents describing various uses of flax seeds, including their consumption as a food supplement and uses in medical applications. We conclude that until recently flax was grown primarily for textile fibres, and only smaller quantities of flax seeds were consumed. So, the flax seed finds from the early Iron Age site of Tel Beth-Shean also represent seed consumption or oil extraction.     

Combining functional weed ecology and crop stable isotope ratios to identify cultivation intensity: a comparison of cereal production regimes in Haute Provence,France and Asturias,Spain

This investigation combines two independent methods of identifying crop growing conditions and husbandry practices—functional weed ecology and crop stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis—in order to assess their potential for inferring the intensity of past cereal production systems using archaeobotanical assemblages. Present-day organic cereal farming in Haute Provence, France features crop varieties adapted to low-nutrient soils managed through crop rotation, with little to no manuring. Weed quadrat survey of 60 crop field transects in this region revealed that floristic variation primarily reflects geographical differences. Functional ecological weed data clearly distinguish the Provence fields from those surveyed in a previous study of intensively managed spelt wheat in Asturias, north-western Spain: as expected, weed ecological data reflect higher soil fertility and disturbance in Asturias. Similarly, crop stable nitrogen isotope values distinguish between intensive manuring in Asturias and long-term cultivation with minimal manuring in Haute Provence. The new model of cereal cultivation intensity based on weed ecology and crop isotope values in Haute Provence and Asturias was tested through application to two other present-day regimes, successfully identifying a high-intensity regime in the Sighisoara region, Romania, and low-intensity production in Kastamonu, Turkey. Application of this new model to Neolithic archaeobotanical assemblages in central Europe suggests that early farming tended to be intensive, and likely incorporated manuring, but also exhibited considerable variation, providing a finer grained understanding of cultivation intensity than previously available.     

A comparison of early Neolithic crop and weed assemblages from the Linearbandkeramik and the Bulgarian Neolithic cultures: differences and similarities

The spread of early agriculture from the Mediterranean to central Europe is still poorly understood. The new subsistence reached western central Europe during the second half of the 6th millennium cal b.c. This paper presents a comparison of crop and weed species from 33 Bandkeramik sites from Austria and Germany and six Bulgarian Neolithic sites. The aim is to investigate whether the early cultivation system brought in from the eastern Mediterranean was adapted to European conditions in Bulgaria or further West. Some characteristics of the potential weeds are interpreted with respect to the cultivation systems and the origin of the species.     

线粒体全基因组揭示嫩江流域史前人群遗传结构的动态变化

嫩江流域是中国东北地区古代先民的重要栖息地之一。自新石器时代开始这里的先民一直以渔猎经济为主要生活方式,直到新石器时代晚期至早期青铜时代才开始兼营畜牧业和少量的种植业。嫩江流域青铜时代的生业模式的转变是否伴随着外来人群的融合与替代一直是考古研究的热点。为了探讨嫩江流域新石器时代与青铜铁器时代人群的构成是否改变,我们对嫩江流域新石器时代至青铜铁器时代的24个个体进行了线粒体全基因组分析。分析结果表明：嫩江流域青铜铁器时代人群与新石器时代人群具有一定遗传连续性的同时,晚期人群与西辽河地区古代人群有着更近的遗传联系,表明西辽河地区古代居民对嫩江流域青铜铁器时代人群具有部分遗传贡献。结合考古学文化、古气候学数据以及语言学证据,我们推测距今4000-3000年间,西辽河地区古代居民曾迁入到嫩江流域,并留下遗传印记。     

Holocene vegetation and land-use history in the environs of Lake Kahala, northern Estonia

Pollen profiles, based cores taken in Lake Kahala and from the adjoining mire, were used to establish general vegetation history and to reconstruct the extent and types of land-use over most of the Holocene. Modern pollen deposition was studied using moss polsters and the results were used in the interpretation of the fossil pollen data in terms of former land-use practices. The modern-day samples are from settlements, hay meadow and pasture, and overgrown pasture. Indications of human activity can be traced back to the Stone Age. At ca. 6400 cal. B.C., the first indications of possible woodland utilisation by humans are recorded. This may have involved grazing within the forests. From 4200 cal. B.C. onwards, animal husbandry with changing intensity was practised. Arable farming, involving cereals, was introduced to the area at ca. 1800 cal. B.C., but it was only at ca. 500 cal. B.C. that it assumed an important role in the farming economy.Secale cereale (rye) was introduced during the Roman Iron Age, intensive rye cultivation started at the end of the Iron Age, at ca. cal. A.D. 800. Ever increasing farming pressures triggered the formation of openalvars. Open landscape similar to that of today has persisted, with minor forest regeneration phases, since at least 500 cal. B.C.     

On the origin of cultivated rye

The origin of cultivated rye has been studied, taking into consideration evidence from various fields. Based on morphological resemblances and cytogenetic affinities, cultivated rye is included in Secale cereale L. emend. Sencer, which also includes annual wild and weedy ryes. Wild populations of 5. cereale , which have evolved from Secale montanum Guss. emend. Sencer, invaded wheat and barley fields during the early days of cultivation and gave rise to weedy ryes with varying degrees of rachis brittleness. Cultivated rye was selected from weedy ryes for non-brittle rachis and bigger caryopsis both unconsciously and consciously by man. The geographic origin of cultivated rye is postulated for the Büyük Ari Dai (Mt. Ararat) and Lake Van area in eastern Turkey. It spread from this area as a weed in wheat and barley fields towards the north, east and west and imposed itself as a secondary crop under conditions unfavourable for wheat and barley. It thus became a crop in its own right in several places independently, in addition to it being known by the people living in the Caucasus and Transcaucasus from very early agricultural times.     

Agriculture and food from the Roman to the Islamic Period in the North-East of the Iberian peninsula: archaeobotanical studies in the city of Lleida (Catalonia, Spain)

The urban archaeological excavations carried out in the city of Lleida (Catalonia, Spain) have opened the way for an interdisciplinary project on the ancient landscape, agriculture and food. Here we present the results of the archaeobotanical study of seeds and fruits from this project, centred on the Roman and Islamic periods of the city, between the 2nd century B.C. and the 11th century A.D. During the whole of this period the cultivation and consumption of cereals was found. The most important cereals were hulled barley and naked wheat. This was already known from the later prehistoric era in the area and is similar to findings at other sites from the same period in the western Mediterranean. These cereals are accompanied by some leguminous crops and the presence of grapes and figs is very significant. The expansion of vine cultivation, together with a certain amount of tree growing was one of the basic contributions of the Roman world to proto-historical (Bronze- and Iron Age) agriculture in western Catalonia, as in other parts of Europe. In the Islamic period, there seems to have been an increase in the number of fruit tree species; however for taphonomical reasons this has to be confirmed by future investigations. Flax, already known in prehistoric times, and Gold-of-pleasure must be added to the finds. Also since the Roman period some other taxa, such as celery or fennel, might have been grown. During the time period considered in this paper, there was a wide range of plants grown and consumed. This clearly contrasts with everything known about earlier periods in western Catalonia, during which the only cultivated plants were cereals and flax.     

Rye cultivation in the Danish Iron Age – some new evidence from iron-smelting furnaces

Analyses have been carried out on well-preserved carbonised rye and barley plants and associated plant remains preserved in iron smelting furnaces from southern Jutland, Denmark. The furnaces are dated archaeologically to the transition between the Roman and Germanic Iron Ages (ca. a.d. 400). The results of the analyses allow detailed reconstruction of the contemporary fields, revealing them as having been well tended with a dense stand of crop plants and few weeds. The composition of the weed assemblages suggests that the rye was autumn-sown. Analysis of the culm bases and roots showed that rye had probably been broadcast sown, followed by a light harrowing to cover the sown grain.     

Carthamus species in the ancient Near East and south-eastern Europe: archaeobotanical evidence for their distribution and use as a source of oil

We present an overview of archaeobotanical Carthamus spp. finds from Neolithic to medieval sites in the Near East and adjacent areas. A particular focus is put on the cultivated form of the genus. Safflower appears first in a number of early Bronze Age (3000 b.c.) sites in northern and central Syria. From there it apparently spread to Egypt, the Aegean and south-eastern Europe. The Near Eastern Bronze Age evidence shows a striking exclusiveness in the distribution patterns of safflower and flax, with flax being restricted to Levantine and Iranian sites. This may reflect the contrasting ecological requirements of the two crops, with safflower being well adapted to drought and salinity and thus to arid conditions. At the same time the geographically complementary evidence may indicate a similar use of the two crops and most probably suggests that the safflower was also used for oil almost from the beginning of its cultivation. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Vegetation history and agriculture in the cover-sand area west of Breda (province of Noord-Brabant, The Netherlands)

Botanical investigation of archaeological sites situated in the northwest of the region bounded by the rivers Maas, Scheldt and Demer (‘MSD region’), west of the city of Breda, has provided a great deal of evidence about the landscape and its use in the period between 2000 b.c. and a.d. 1500. From pollen analysis, it appears that this cover-sand area gradually lost its woodlands through human activity after the beginning of the Bronze Age (ca. 2000 b.c.). Patches of woodland did survive there, however, until the early Middle Ages. In contrast to the cover-sand area in the vicinity of ’s-Hertogenbosch and Oss-Ussen in the northeast of the MSD region, the first large heathlands in the Breda area did not evolve until the early Middle Ages. In late prehistory, land use in this area was not much different from that in the micro-region of ’s-Hertogenbosch and Oss-Ussen. In the Bronze Age, Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare (hulled six-row barley) and Triticum dicoccon (emmer wheat) were grown. During the Iron Age, Panicum miliaceum (common millet) and T. spelta (spelt wheat) were introduced, but these crops disappeared during the Roman period. The Roman period is remarkable because of the lack of any Mediterranean culinary herbs or exotic fruits. Only pollen of Juglans regia (walnut), found around the transition from the Roman period to the early Middle Ages, indicates the introduction of an exotic tree into the region. From the early Middle Ages onwards, Secale cereale (rye) was the most important cereal, which was grown as a winter crop. In the course of the Middle Ages, arable weeds of the Sclerantho annui-Arnoseridetum plant community appeared, which is associated with the continuous growing of rye.     

Changes in cereal cultivation during the Iron Age in southern Sweden: a compilation and interpretation of the archaeobotanical material

Macrofossil data from 73 sites dating to the south Swedish Iron Age (500 b.c.–a.d. 1100) have been compiled and analyzed in order to elucidate long term changes in cereal cultivation. The analyses indicate that “permanent field” agriculture was established at the end of the Bronze Age utilizing Hordeum vulgare var vulgare as a primary crop and Triticum aestivum ssp vulgare/compactum, Triticum spelta/dicoccum/monococcum, Avena sativa and Secale cereale as secondary crops. An observed change towards the end of Roman Iron Age (1–a.d. 400) is the expansion of Secale cereale and Avena sativa cultivation. Evidence also suggests that winter sowing of the former commenced at the latest during the eighth, ninth and tenth centuries a.d. The introduction of winter sowing possibly coincided with the establishment of crop rotation agriculture. During most of the Iron Age southern Sweden displays significant regional variations with regards to cereal cultivation practice. There is however evidence that a more homogenous agriculture appeared across the investigated area from the beginning of the Viking Age (a.d. 800–1100) onwards.     

Effects of Continuous Cropping of Rye on Soil Biota and Biochemistry

Long-term studies on the ecological effects of continuous rye cultivations carried out in Poland are summarized. It was shown that in continuous cropping of rye, despite the decrease of crop yields, no significant difference was observed in annual primary production rates compared with estimates found for rye fields cultivated in diversified crop rotation patterns. In continuous cultivation of rye fauna impoverishment was observed, while at the same time the number of crop pests increased. The animal groups reduced by continuous cropping of rye belong to Protozoa, Lumbricidae, Acarina, and winged insects. The cultivation of rye in continuous cropping influenced the increase of fungi with bacteria and actinomycetes becoming less abundant. In soils under continuous rye the average concentration of phenolic acids was 400% higher than under rye in diversified rotation. Five different phenolic acids were identified. The mean content of bound amino acids in soils under diversified rotation was 417?mg×kg^?1and in soils under continuous rye cropping was 371?mg×kg^?1. The energetic cost of total soil animal community maintenance calculated per unit of biomass under continuous cropping of rye was almost twice as high as under the diversified rotation. The accumulation of toxic metabolites caused negative effects among biota under continuous cropping of rye.     

Early Iron Age agriculture: archaeobotanical evidence from an underground granary at Overbyg»rd in northern Jutland, Denmark

In the Late Pre-Roman Iron Age an underground granary in the village of Overbyg»rd was destroyed by fire and the contents were carbonised. Almost 2000 years later, analyses of the macroremains of the granary, which included a range of processed and unprocessed crops and weed seeds, showed that naked barley (Hordeum vulgare var. nudum) and bread wheat (Triticum aestivum s.l.) were the main crops cultivated, hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare) and flax (Linum usitatissimum) also played a role, whereas emmer (Triticum dicoccum) and gold of pleasure (Camelina sativa) were present as weeds or contaminants. The arable weed flora suggests that crops were sown in spring and that ecological conditions in the arable fields were very variable. The crops were harvested on the straw and may have spent some time drying and maturing in the fields before being transported home to be stored as severed ears in pest-proof granaries. Winnowing or, more probably, casting appears to have been used to clean the crop after threshing. It could not be ascertained if the crops had been sieved. Large collections of weed seeds in the granary were apparently the result of intentional gathering for food, rather than by-products of crop processing. In the light of the investigation it is suggested that future research into Iron Age agrarian practices should include both the analysis of archaeobotanical finds and a programme of practical experiments. This dual approach will give us a much better understanding of arable agriculture, not only in the Iron Age, but in prehistory as a whole.     

Plant remains from Sardinia,Italy with notes on barley and grape

This paper presents archaeobotanical results from Sardinia, an island in the western Mediterranean. The starting point is the material excavated at Duos Nuraghes near Borore, but remains provided by other sites are taken into account as well. Naked wheat, presumably a tetraploid wheat such as Triticum durum Desf. (macaroni wheat), and Hordeum vulgare L. (barley) are the most common finds from the Neolithic up to the Medieval period. Triticum dicoccum Schübl. (emmer), Lens culinaris Medik. (lentil), Pisum sativum L. (pea) and Vicia faba L. var. minor (horse bean) have been grown as well. A medieval context revealed Beta vulgaris L. (beet). The most common find in the category of fruits is Vitis vinifera L. (grape). The overall picture is one of continuity in agricultural practices. Nevertheless this picture may be false. In the early Bronze Age the cultivation of barley may have shifted from the naked variety towards the hulled variety. The Phoenicians may have introduced new cultivars of grapevine, although the native grapevine was not replaced by these. The weed taxa suggest some change in agriculture from Punic or Roman times onwards. Received August 10, 2001 / Accepted January 15, 2002