Life history attributes of Indian meal moth (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Angoumois grain moth (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) reared on transgenic corn kernels

The Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella (Hübner), and Angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier), are two globally distributed stored-grain pests. Laboratory experiments were conducted to examine the impact that corn (Zea mays L.) kernels (i.e., grain) of some Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) corn hybrids containing CrylAb Bt delta-endotoxin have on life history attributes of Indian meal moth and Angoumois grain moth. Stored grain is at risk to damage from Indian meal moth and Angoumois grain moth; therefore, Bt corn may provide a means of protecting this commodity from damage. Thus, the objective of this research was to quantify the effects of transgenic corn seed containing CrylAb delta-endotoxin on Indian meal moth and Angoumois grain moth survival, fecundity, and duration of development. Experiments with Bt grain, non-Bt isolines, and non-Bt grain were conducted in environmental chambers at 27 +/- 1 degrees C and > or = 60% RH in continuous dark. Fifty eggs were placed in ventilated pint jars containing 170 g of cracked or whole corn for the Indian meal moth and Angoumois grain moth, respectively. Emergence and fecundity were observed for 5 wk. Emergence and fecundity of Indian meal moth and emergence of Angoumois grain moth were significantly lower for individuals reared on P33V08 and N6800Bt, MON 810 and Bt-11 transformed hybrids, respectively, than on their non-Bt transformed isolines. Longer developmental times were observed for Indian meal moth reared on P33V08 and N6800Bt than their non-Bt-transformed isolines. These results indicate that MON 810 and Bt-11 CrylAb delta-endotoxin-containing kernels reduce laboratory populations of Indian meal moth and Angoumois grain moth. Thus, storing Bt-transformed grain is a management tactic that warrants bin scale testing and may effectively reduce Indian meal moth and Angoumois grain moth populations in grain without application of synthetic chemicals or pesticides.     

Oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) phenology and management with methoxyfenozide in North Carolina apples

The phenology of oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), on apple (Malus spp.) in North Carolina was studied using pheromone traps and egg sampling in abandoned and commercial orchards in 2000 and 2001, with subsequent development of an oviposition degree-day model and management studies in relation to codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), phenology. Oriental fruit moth eggs were found in greater numbers on leaves early and on fruit later in the growing season, on the top versus the bottom of the leaf surface, and on the calyx area versus the side or stem end of the fruit. A degree-day (DD) model to predict oriental fruit moth oviposition was developed based on temperature accumulations from peak moth trap capture of the first (overwintering) generation, by using 7.2 and 32.2 degrees C as the temperature limits. The model predicted four ovipositing generations of oriental fruit moth with the second beginning 507 DD after peak moth catch. Using predictions of the oriental fruit moth and codling moth degree-day oviposition models, an experiment was conducted to determine the level of second generation oriental fruit moth control with methoxyfenozide applied under different scenarios for first generation codling moth. Methoxyfenozide was equally effective in managing codling moth and oriental fruit moth for all treatment timings.     

亚麻荠对小菜蛾幼虫取食和成虫行为反应的影响

亚麻荠是一种很少有害虫危害的油料作物。用室内生测和Y 型嗅觉仪研究了亚麻荠对小菜蛾Plutella xylostella幼虫取食和成虫行 为反应的影响。以甘蓝作对照,用亚麻荠叶片喂养的小菜蛾初孵幼虫3天后校正死亡率为79 .2%,显示了较强的致死作用;喂养小菜蛾3龄幼虫至化蛹,其存活率、化蛹率、蛹重及成 虫寿命都显著降低,表明亚麻荠对小菜蛾幼虫的生长发育有不利影响。在幼虫的取食选择实 验中,有甘蓝叶供选择时,小菜蛾幼虫不取食亚麻荠;在无可选择的情况下,小菜蛾幼虫也 取 食亚麻荠叶片,但取食量很小,与取食甘蓝叶的量相比,差异极显著。行为反应测试表明, 小菜蛾成虫对甘蓝和亚麻荠植株的挥发物都有明显的趋性反应,与对照（净化空气）相比, 差异极显著,而在甘蓝和亚麻荠之间无选择性。说明小菜蛾成虫对亚麻荠植株的挥发物具有 较强的定向反应。     

Toxicity and residual activity of methoxyfenozide and tebufenozide to codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

A series of studies were conducted to examine the residual activity and toxicity of the ecdysone agonists tebufenozide and methoxyfenozide to codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), and oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), in North Carolina apple systems. Methoxyfenozide exhibited greater activity than tebufenozide against codling moth eggs in dose-response bioassays, with a 4.5- and 5.3-fold lower LC50 value to eggs laid on fruit treated before or after oviposition, respectively. Oriental fruit moth eggs were 57- and 12-fold less sensitive to methoxyfenozide than were codling moth eggs on fruit treated before and after oviposition, respectively. Methoxyfenozide was effective in reducing larval entries of both codling moth and oriental fruit moth in field residual activity bioassays, exhibiting activity for at least 28 d after application. Residue breakdown on fruit was approximately 80% at 28 d after treatment for both methoxyfenozide and tebufenozide, with the most rapid residue decline (60%) occurring during the first 14 d after application. Two applications of methoxyfenozide applied at 14-d intervals provided better canopy coverage and higher residue levels than one application. Spray volume (683 versus 2,057 liters/ha) did not affect the efficacy of methoxyfenozide. Leaf and fruit expansion during the season was measured to determine potential plant-growth dilution effects on residual activity. There was very little increase in leaf area after mid May, but increase in fruit surface area over the season was described by a second order polynomial regression. Implications for codling moth and oriental fruit moth management programs are discussed.     

Effect of radiation on fecundity and fertility of codling moth Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) from South Africa

Codling moth Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is the key pest of pome fruit in South Africa, and it’s control in apple and pear orchards relies on the application of insecticides and pheromone‐mediated mating disruption. Development of resistance to insecticides and placement of restrictions on the use of certain insecticides has made control of codling moth in South Africa increasingly problematic. The use of the sterile insect technique (SIT) as a control tactic for codling moth is under investigation as a potential addition to the current control strategy. We investigated the radiosensitivity of a laboratory strain of codling moth that was established from moths collected from commercial and organic orchards in the Western Cape, South Africa. Fecundity and fertility of this strain following radiation were consistent with values for the codling moth strain in the Canadian rearing facility in British Columbia. For both strains, the female codling moth was considerably more radiosensitive than the male. At a radiation dose of 100 Gy or higher, treated females were 100% sterile. The fertility of the South African strain was higher (86.3%) than for the Canadian strain (71.9%). This difference in fertility between the two strains was maintained when the dose of radiation was 100 Gy. However, the level of fertility was very similar between the two strains for doses ≥150 Gy. Therefore, based upon previously published work and the data from this study, an operational dose of 150 Gy is recommended for future codling moth SIT programmes in South Africa.     

Dynamics ofSitotroga cerealella (olivier) (lepidoptera: gelechiidae) andSitophilus zeamais motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) populations in a small bulk of stored corn

The dynamics of Angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier ), and maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamaisMotschulsky , populations breeding in a small bulk (initially 5.36 t) of shelled corn were studied over an 8-year period by monthly sampling. The weevil population showed wide fluctuations in density superimposed on a general decline with time. The moth population showed no upward or downward trend for the first 60 months, although it fluctuated widely. Following a decline that occurred between 56 and 60 months, the moth population fluctuated within a much narrower range, and there was a general decrease in density with time. The decline of the weevil population paralleled deterioration of the corn as did that of the moth population after ca 60 months, and the decline of both species probably resulted from increasing scarcity of suitable breeding sites. Both populations exhibited seasonal variation in density with minima in late summer and early fall, following periods of adversely high temperatures in the storage shed. The populations increased during the fall, leveled off or declined slightly during the winter months, and then increased to maximum levels in late spring or early summer. It thus appears that high temperatures had a greater adverse effect on the populations than low temperatures. The grain moth and the maize weevil both tended to be randomly dispersed at low population levels and moderately aggregated at intermediate and high levels, although the degree of aggregation was not correlated with population density when low population levels were considered separately, and the maize weevil showed a greater tendency for aggregation than did the grain moth. Analysis of individual samples at fixed points in time showed a conspicuous bias for negative correlation between numbers of the two species within sampling quadrats, suggesting a tendency for the two species to segregate within the grain mass. This process could have resulted from behavioral differences or from the destruction of one species by the other. Competitive displacement of the grain moth by the maize weevil has been demonstrated in laboratory experiments but has rarely been observed under natural conditions, and in our study the two species coexisted for 8 years in a relatively small grain bulk.     

斜纹拟木蠹蛾在广州发生的生物学特征

本文报道了斜纹拟木蠹蛾Indarbela obliquifasciata在广州的发生和为害特征,对其形态和生物学特征做了阐述,表明该虫在广州一年发生一代,其取食寄主达18种,但主要寄主植物为羊蹄甲,其幼虫共6龄并以幼虫越冬。并对该虫的防治提出了建议。     

Fruit Bins Washed with Steinernema carpocapsae (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) to Control Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

A bin washing apparatus (drencher) was used to treat late-instar codling moth, Cydia pomonella Linnaeus-infested wooden fruit bins with the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae . Sentinel late-instar codling moth larvae were placed in strips of wood, made from dismantled bins, that were subsequently screwed into the corners of real bins before treatment. Pre-soaking the bins with water prior to treatment and covering the bins with a plastic tarp post-treatment, to maintain a high humidity, significantly increased sentinel codling moth mortality. Treatment for 1 min with 50 S. carpocapsae infective juveniles mL -1 water resulted in more than 80% mortality over 6 h in which the nematodes were continuously pumped through the drencher. The temperature of the water in the bin washer was ≤15°C and the chlorine in the city water was too low to harm the nematodes. The key disadvantage of washing the bins was the labour involved. It may be possible to reduce post-treatment holding time and increase codling moth mortality by holding the bins at a higher temperature post-treatment, however this parameter was not included in the study. The presence of the codling moth granulosis virus within the larvae did not influence the nematode-induced codling moth mortality over a range of concentrations and two temperatures in laboratory trials.     

Temporal patterns in Saturnidae (silk moth) and Sphingidae (hawk moth) assemblages in protected forests of central Uganda

Forest‐dependent biodiversity is threatened throughout the tropics by habitat loss and land‐use intensification of the matrix habitats. We resampled historic data on two moth families, known to play central roles in many ecosystem processes, to evaluate temporal changes in species richness and community structure in three protected forests in central Uganda in a rapidly changing matrix. Our results show some significant declines in the moth species richness and the relative abundance and richness of forest‐dependent species over the last 20–40 years. The observed changes in species richness and composition among different forests, ecological types, and moth groups highlight the need to repeatedly monitor biodiversity even within protected and relatively intact forests.     

Natural enemies of the carob mothEctomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller)

The presence of natural enemies of the carob moth was investigated on carob trees, acacias and citrus trees in the various regions of Israel. The highest number of parasite species was found on carob trees, while only a few were observed on acacias and a single one on citrus. A list is given of the natural enemies of the carob moth.     

Improvement of the sterile insect technique for codling moth Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera Tortricidae) to facilitate expansion of field application

The codling moth Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera Tortricidae) is a key pest of pome fruit (apple, pear and quince) and walnut orchards in most temperate regions of the world. Efforts to control the codling moth in the past mostly relied on the use of broad spectrum insecticide sprays, which has resulted in the development of insecticide resistance, and the disruption of the control of secondary pests. In addition, the frequent reliance and use of these insecticides are a constant threat to the environment and human health. Consequently, there have been increased demands from the growers for the development of codling moth control tactics that are not only effective but also friendly to the environment. In that respect, the sterile insect technique (SIT) and its derivative, inherited sterility (IS), are, together with mating disruption and granulosis virus, among the options that offer great potential as cost‐effective additions to available control tactics for integration in area‐wide integrated pest‐management approaches. In support of the further development of the SIT/IS for codling moth control, the Joint FAO/IAEA Programme of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture implemented a 5‐year Coordinated Research Project (CRP) entitled ‘Improvement of codling moth SIT to facilitate expansion of field application’. Research focussed on sterile codling moth quality and management (e.g. mobility and life‐history traits in relation to rearing strategy, dispersal, flight ability, radiosensitivity and mating compatibility) and a better understanding of the basic genetics of codling moth to assist the development of genetic sexing strains (e.g. cytogenetics, the development of dominant conditional lethal mutations, molecular characterization of the sex chromosomes, sex identification in embryos and cytogenetic markers). The results of the CRP are presented in this special issue.     

Potential impact of the native hyperparasitoid Conura albifrons (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae) on the exotic biological control agent Diadromus pulchellus (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae)

The solitary pupal parasitoid Diadromus pulchellus was released in 2010 as a classical biological control agent against leek moth, Acrolepiopsis assectella, an important new pest of onion crops, Allium spp. in Eastern North America. Post-release monitoring using sentinel leek moth pupae revealed that the facultative hyperparasitoid Conura albifrons was attacking leek moth and potentially D. pulchellus as well. We used laboratory choice and no-choice tests to assess the potential impact of C. albifrons on leek moth and D. pulchellus. C. albifrons is capable of developing in newly formed leek moth pupae and leek moth pupae containing first instar D. pulchellus, as well as in fully developed D. pulchellus pupae. Survivorship of both leek moth and D. pulchellus exposed to C. albifrons was significantly lower than that of unexposed controls. In choice trials, prior host experience significantly influenced host choice by C. albifrons. These results suggest that C. albifrons could impact the establishment of D. pulchellus through both competition and intraguild predation, and that the impact has the potential to change as the relative frequency of the two hosts shifts in field populations.     

Oviposition and feeding preference of Acrolepiopsis assectella Zell. (Lep., Acrolepiidae)

Abstract:  The leek moth, Acrolepiopsis assectella (Zell.), is a recently discovered exotic species in eastern Ontario and western Quebec. This Allium spp. (Asparagales, Alliaceae) specialist can cause up to 40% crop damage. A no-choice experiment was used to determine the relationship between oviposition behaviour and larval survival of the leek moth as the phylogenetic distance from the preferred host Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum L. increased. Results indicate that oviposition preference and larval survival of the leek moth declined as the phylogenetic distance from the preferred host increased. These results support the conclusion that the leek moth is a specialist feeder on closely related Allium spp. although the strength of this preference may decline as the motivation to oviposit increases. This may indicate that the leek moth is able to use closely related novel hosts as temporary refuges if the preferred host plant is unavailable.     

The potential for Entomophaga maimaiga to regulate gypsy moth Lymantria dispar (L.) (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) in Europe

Gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar L., is one of the most important pests of deciduous trees in Europe. In regular cycles, it causes large‐scale defoliation mostly of oak, Quercus spp., forests. Government authorities in the most infested countries in Europe conduct large‐scale applications of pesticides against gypsy moth. In 1999, a new natural enemy, the entomopathogenic fungus Entomophaga maimaiga, was successfully introduced into a gypsy moth population in Bulgaria. Recent investigations suggest that now E. maimaiga is quickly spreading in Europe. Herein, past studies are reviewed regarding this fungus with special emphasis on its potential for becoming an important factor regulating gypsy moth populations in Europe, focusing on the host's population dynamics in relation to the fungus, the influence of environmental conditions on fungal activity, the influence of E. maimaiga on the native entomofauna, including other gypsy moth natural enemies, and spread of the fungus. Based on this analysis, the potential of E. maimaiga for providing control in European gypsy moth populations is estimated.     

Effect of conidial dispersal of the fungal pathogen Entomophaga maimaiga (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) on survival of its gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) host

Several researchers have developed a one-generational computer model that simulates infection prevalence of gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, caterpillars by its fungal pathogen, Entomophaga maimaiga. Inputs required are temperature, humidity, and rainfall records, a measure of fungus resting spore load in the soil, and an estimate of gypsy moth larval density. In a previous study, the model accurately tracked fungal-induced host mortality as long as airborne fungal conidia were allowed to disperse freely over a local area. In 2002, dispersal of conidia and its influence on the impact of the fungus on the gypsy moth was investigated. Gypsy moth densities and fungus resting spore loads were measured in 15 plots within a 3 km area. In 7 of the plots, prevalence of fungal disease was determined weekly by collecting and rearing gypsy moth larvae. Different strategies were used to disperse conidia within the model, and resulting simulated prevalence rates were compared to actual data. Model output was most accurate when airborne conidia were permitted to disperse equally to all plots. Thus, to accurately assess the impact of the fungus in one location, it is necessary to take into account fungal activity throughout the local area.     

Bottom-up and top-down effects in a tritrophic system: the population dynamics of Plutella xylostella (L.)–Cotesia plutellae (Kurdjumov) on different host plants

Abstract.  1. The effects of host-plant resistance on the population dynamics of the Diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella L., and its solitary parasitoid, Cotesia plutellae (Kurdjumov), were studied in replicated time-series experiments.
2. Host-plant resistance did not affect the equilibrial abundance of the Diamondback moth, but it affected the dynamics of Diamondback moth populations.
3. The mean population size of Diamondback moth showed no significant difference between Brassica rapa (a susceptible host plant) and Brassica napus (a partially resistant host plant) either in the presence or absence of the parasitoid.
4. Time-series analysis suggests that the dynamics of Diamondback moth on B. rapa were underpinned by delayed density-dependent processes. In contrast, the dynamics of the moth on B. napus were influenced by a direct density-dependent process.
5. Although measures of short-term parasitism showed a significantly higher rate of parasitism by C. plutellae on Diamondback moth feeding on B. napus compared with B. rapa , this individual performance does not translate into differences in the population dynamics. Analysis shows no significant difference in the persistence time of the population-level interaction between the host and parasitoid on the two different host plants.     

Effect of insecticides on the diamondback moth (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) and its parasitoid Diadegma insulare (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae)

Studies were conducted to evaluate the toxicity of insecticides to adult Diadegma insulare (Cresson) and its host the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.). Leaf-dip and direct-dip bioassays for diamondback moth larvae and residual bioassays for adults of diamondback moth and D. insulare were used to assess mortalities. Larval mortalities at field rates were significantly higher with carbaryl, permethrin, spinosad, and tebufenozide when compared with Bacillus thuringiensis, or imidacloprid in the larval-dip bioassay 72 h after treatment. In the leaf-dip and residual bioassays, both permethrin and spinosad caused 100% mortalities to diamondback moth larvae and adults, respectively, 72 h after treatment. Of all the materials tested, only B. thuringiensis and tebufenozide were not toxic to D. insulare 24 h after treatment. Spinosad was not toxic to D. insulare 30 min after treatment. However, 100% mortality was observed 8 h after treatment.     

Pollination of Platanthera chlorantha (Orchidaceae): new video registration of a hawkmoth (Sphingidae)

Documenting species interactions is a time consuming enterprise, in particular for rare interaction events and interactions taking place at night. Pollinators foraging on orchids have traditionally been monitored by discovering pollen vectors on collected insects, recording traces left by moths on the orchid, direct observations and recently by continuous video monitoring. Direct observations in the wild of orchids with low visitation rates is time demanding. In the present study I monitored greater butterfly‐orchids (Platanthera chlorantha), by using a event triggered video monitoring system. A total of 23 nights of monitoring were conducted, whereas only 6 nights had visits by one moth species, namely the pine hawk‐moth (Hyloicus pinastri). The total numbers of pine hawk‐moths registered were 18. In addition to species identification, the video recordings also enabled detection of pollinaria on the pine hawk‐moths. Most of the pine hawk‐moth visits took place around midnight. The visit lasted on average for 38.0 sec and the average number of flowers visited was 9.6. In future studies, this video system could give more details on interactions between orchids and insects and even link it to environmental factors (e.g. varying weather conditions).     

草地螟(Loxostege sticticalis)周期性大发生与太阳黑子活动的相关性

草地螟Loxostege sticticalis L．是一种周期性大发生的农作物主要害虫,自新中国成立后已经3次大规模暴发成灾,但关于草地螟周期性大发生的原因还未见报道。利用国际通用的太阳黑子活动数据和我国草地螟大发生的历史记载进行相关性和相位分析的结果表明,我国草地螟大发生的周期性与对应的太阳黑子活动的奇数周期相关联。建国以来的3个大发生周期分别与对应的太阳黑子活动的第19、21周和第23周期在时间序列上表现出极高的同步性,尽管草地螟的发生为害程度与太阳黑子的活动强度之间相关性并不显著。根据这些结果,并结合太阳黑子活动周期的预测,草地螟在我国的第4个大发生周期很有可能开始于2017～2020年之间,并在2024—2025年间达到高峰。     

Life stage toxicity and residual activity of insecticides to codling moth and oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

The codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), and oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), are two key pests of apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) in North Carolina. Growers extensively relied on organophosphate insecticides, primarily azinphosmethyl, for > 40 yr to manage these pests. Because of organophosphate resistance development and regulatory actions, growers are transitioning to management programs that use new, reduced-risk, and OP-replacement insecticides. This study evaluated the toxicity of a diversity of replacement insecticides to eggs, larvae, and adults, as well as an assessment of their residual activity, to codling moth and oriental fruit moth. Laboratory-susceptible strains of both species were used for all bioassays. Fresh field-harvested apples were used as a media for assessing the ovicidal activity of insecticides. For larval studies, insecticides were topically applied to the surface of lima bean-based diet, onto which neonates were placed. Toxicity was based on two measures of mortality; 5-d mortality and development to adult stage. Ovicidal bioassays showed that oriental fruit moth eggs were generally more tolerant than codling moth eggs to insecticides, with novaluron, acetamiprid, and azinphoshmethyl having the highest levels of toxicity to eggs of both species. In contrast, codling moth larvae generally were more tolerant than oriental fruit moth to most insecticides. Methoxyfenozide and pyriproxyfen were the only insecticides with lower LC50 values against codling moth than oriental fruit moth neonates. Moreover, a number of insecticides, particularly the IGRs methoxyfenozide and novaluron, the anthranilic diamide chlorantriliprole, and the spinosyn spinetoram, provided equal or longer residual activity against codling moth compared with azinphosmethyl in field studies. Results are discussed in relation to their use in devising field use patterns of insecticides and for insecticide resistance monitoring programs.