Genetic diversity of Schistosoma mansoni within and among individual hosts (Rattus rattus): infrapopulation differentiation at microspatial scale

The distribution of genetic diversity in a local population of the trematode Schistosoma mansoni was determined within and between individual wild rats at a microspatial geographic scale of a standing water transmission site. Using RAPD markers, molecular variance and canonical correspondence analysis were performed to test the significance of genetic differentiation between infrapopulations. Of total gene diversity, 8 and 11% was partitioned between hosts trapped at few metres distance from each other. Significant temporal differentiation (2%) was also detected among schistosomes sampled at 6 month intervals with more infrapopulation pairs differentiated during the dry season of parasite transmission than during the rainy season (45 and 12%, respectively). A combination of factors such as restricted displacement of rats, patchy spatial aggregation of infected snails and limited cercarial dispersion in standing water are likely to promote the genetic differentiation observed between infrapopulations at this microgeographic scale.     

Genetic diversity within Anatolian brown hares (Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778) and differentiation among Anatolian and European populations

Genetic variability of Anatolian hares and relationships between Anatolian and European populations were assessed by a multilocus allozyme approach to infer evolutionary relationships between hares from Asia Minor and Europe. Of the 48 loci assayed, 19 (39.6%) were polymorphic with two to four alleles in the Anatolian hares. Among all Anatolian alleles, 14 were so far not found in the compared 717 brown hares from Europe. Overall, genetic diversity was highest in Anatolian hares, intermediate in brown hares from the southern and southeastern Balkans and lowest in central European populations. The rich genetic diversity in Anatolian hares might be a consequence of Anatolias biogeographic position with the chance of multiple gene flow from neighbouring regions, and the likelihood of long-term presence of hares during the last ice age, when large parts of more northern latitudes did not provide suitable habitats.However, among 28 loci used for the comparison between European and Anatolian populations, most common alleles of European brown hares were also common in Anatolian populations and no alternately fixed alleles were found for Anatolian and European populations. This together with only little or moderately varying allele frequencies produced low genetic divergence between Anatolian and European populations. Genetic differentiation among Anatolian populations was also low. Even between the two forms with different coat colour (brownish and yellowish) in Anatolian hares, there was little genetic differentiation. Altogether, all Anatolian hares studied presently are closely related to European brown hare populations, and only some distantly spaced population pairs revealed increased genetic divergence.

Zusammenfassung

Genetische Diversität anatolischer Feldhasen (Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778) und Differenzierung zwischen anatolischen und europäischen PopulationenZur Beurteilung der phylogenetischen Beziehungen zwischen anatolischen Hasen und europäischen Feldhasenpopulationen wurde die allelische Variabilität anatolischer Hasen mittels horizontaler Stärkegelelektrophorese erfaßt und gemeinsam mit unmittelbar vergleichbaren Daten griechischer, bulgarischer und österreichischer Populationen aus früheren Studien populationsgenetischen Analysen unterzogen. Neunzehn der 48 untersuchten Loci der anatolischen Hasen zeigten allelische Variabilität. Unter den anatolischen Allelen kamen 14 bisher in den europäischen Polulationen nicht vor. Insgesamt zeigten anatolische Hasen die höchste und österreichische Populationen die niedrigste genetische Diversität; die jeweiligen Werte der griechischen und bulgarischen Populationen lagen dazwischen. Dies entspricht unserer Hypothese hoher genetischer Diversität in Anatolien, auf Grund der biogeografischen Position und der klimatischen bzw. Lebensraumbedingungen während des Pleistozäns, die, im Gegensatz zu Mitteleuropa, kontinuierliche Hasenpopulation in Anatolien wahrscheinlich erscheinen lassen. Kontinuierliche Populationen und Genflüsse aus verschiedenen Nachbarregionen könnten bei langfristig relative ungestörten Populationen zur Anreicherung genetischer Varianten in Anatolien geführt haben, während mitteleuropäische Feldhasenpopulationen im Zuge ihrer postglazialen Einwanderung aus Refugial-gebieten an genetischer Vielfalt eingebüßt haben. Allerdings waren die häufigen Allele der anatolischen Hasen ebenfalls häufig bei den europäischen Feldhasen vertreten; somit ergab sich insgesamt nur eine geringe genetische Differenzierung zwischen anatolischen und europäischen Feldhasen. Die zwei in Anatolien gefundenen Fellfärbungstypen (brauner vs. gelber Grundton) zeigten ebenfalls keine besondere genetische Differenzierung.     

Genetic diversity and differentiation of masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou masou) between and within cultured populations inferred from microsatellite DNA analysis

Masu salmon,Oncorhynchus masou masou,is one of the most valuable fishery species that has been introduced to China,though to date no studies on the genetic diversity and genetic relationship among hatchery populations has been performed with molecular markers.We undertook such a study and sampled 120 individuals from three hatchery stocks and analyzed 20 microsatellite loci.All loci were polymorphic and a total of 91 alleles were detected.A relatively low level of genetic diversity was revealed with effective number of allele of 3.1094,3.3299 and 3.1894 and expected heterozygosity of 0.6600,0.6648 and 0.6638 in the three stocks,respectively.Deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium were found due to heterozygote deficit.Accordingly,evidence of genetic bottlenecks were found in the three stocks.An individual assignment test demonstrated that 85% of individuals were correctly assigned into their original stocks.Pairwise Fst revealed that significant differentiation occurred between these three stocks.The results of the study indicated that disequilibrium of genetic structure and differentiation has occurred in all three stocks.This information collectively provides a basis for measures to avoid of loss of genetic diversity and introgression in Chinese aquaculture.     

Distribution of genetic diversity within and between Western Mediterranean island populations of the black rat Rattus rattus (L. 1758)

Genetic diversity was estimated by allozyme analysis at 26 loci in black rat populations (Rattus rattus) from 15 western Mediterranean islands (Hyéres, Corsica, Sardinia and related islets). Although overall variability levels were low (H = 0.025), the mean heterozygosity values for the islands were similar to those for three reference mainland populations. Within the islands, however, genetic diversity varied in relation to island size and geographic isolation. In particular, most small insular populations were significantly more variable than those on both large and isolated islands. The generic relationships between island populations were established by F_ST analyses indicating possible geographic origins and patterns of colonization. The maintenance of unexpectedly high levels of variability in the small island populations is discussed in relation to changes in the demographic and social structure observed in these populations. These island populations of black rat illustrate how genetic diversity may be efficiently maintained in a series of interconnected spatially fragmented populations.     

Genetic diversity within and among vegetative compatibility groups of Stereum sanguinolentum determined by arbitrary primed PCR

Genetic variation within and among vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs) of Stereum sanguinolentum isolates was investigated with various geographical distances. DNA fingerprints were made using the M13 core sequence as a primer. A total of 113 isolates from 12 plots in Sweden, Finland and Lithuania were studied. Each VCG produced a discrete group of banding patterns. Among 20 isolates from the largest VCG, G1, the incidence of identical banding patterns was 24% within a sample plot, 8% among sample plots within a country, and 0% among countries. In the other 15 VCGs that comprised two and more isolates, corresponding percentages were 42%, 30% and 0%. Average band-sharing indices (ABSIs) within VCGs decreased with increasing geographical distance: for isolates from VCG G1, ABSI was 91.3% within sample plots, 85.4% among sample plots within a country, and 79.2% among countries. Corresponding figures for the other 15 VCGs were 97.0%, 92.7% and 80.4%, respectively. Among VCGs similarities were significantly lower ( P < 0.001) and the trend of decreasing similarity with larger geographical distances was less pronounced: ABSI within sample plots was 73.7%, among sample plots within countries 73.8%, and among countries 71.1%. However, the similarity of populations as compared within and between countries differed significantly ( P < 0.001), suggesting geographical differentiation between S. sanguinolentum populations separated by 400 km and the Baltic sea. Calculations of G _ST clearly indicated geographical population subdivision within the large VCG but not among the total sample. In summary, the results show population structure of inbred lines within VCGs containing closely related strains in local populations and more distant relationships among populations.     

Genetic diversity within and among populations of the endangered species Taxus fuana (Taxaceae) from Pakistan and implications for its conservation

The West Himalayan yew, Taxus fuana Nan Li & R.R. Mill (Taxaceae), is an endangered species endemic to the Western Himalayas. An investigation of the genetic diversity of wild populations of T. fuana in Pakistan was undertaken. The genetic diversity and genetic structure was quantified using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) variation in 219 individuals of the 10 populations. Of the 32 universal primers screened 16 produced highly reproducible, clear RAPD bands. Using these primers, 193 discernible DNA fragments were generated, of which 164 (84.97%) were polymorphic. The statistical results indicated that there was a relatively low genetic diversity within populations (with percentages of polymorphic bands, PPB, ranging from 29.53 to 50.26%, with an average of 38.34% and a Nei's genetic diversity index (H_E) of 0.1165), and a high genetic differentiation among populations (G_ST = 0.5842, Φ_ST = 0.5685) within these populations. The gene flow (N_m) was low with only 0.3558.     

Genetic diversity and differentiation among Lagopus lagopus populations in Scandinavia and Scotland: evolutionary significant units confirmed by SNP markers

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism in four Scandinavian populations of willow grouse (Lagopus lagopus) and two Scottish populations of red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) were assessed at 13 protein‐coding loci. We found high levels of diversity, with one substitution every 55 bp as an average and a total of 76 unlinked parsimony informative SNPs. Different estimators of genetic diversity such as: number of synonymous and non‐synonymous sites, average number of alleles, number and percentage of polymorphic loci, mean nucleotide diversity (π_s, π_a) and gene diversity at synonymous and non‐synonymous sites showed higher diversity in the northern populations compared to southern ones. Strong levels of purifying selection found in all the populations together with neutrality tests conforming to neutral expectations agree with large effective population sizes. Assignment tests reported a clear distinction between Scandinavian and Scottish grouse suggesting the existence of two different evolutionary significant units. The divergence time between willow and red grouse ranging between 12 500 and 125 000 years, in conjunction with the presence of ‘specific’ markers for each subspecies prompt a reassessment of the taxonomical status of the Scottish red grouse.     

Genetic diversity of the endangered endemic Microcycas calocoma (Miq.) A. DC (Zamiaceae, Cycadales): Implications for conservation

The diversity and genetic structure of seven populations of Microcycas calocoma (Miq.) A. DC, were analyzed by gel electrophoresis using 19 allozymes. The mean number of alleles per locus (A) was 1.49 and the percentage of polymorphic loci was relatively high (P = 48.09). The mean observed (H_o) and expected heterozygosity (H_e) were 0.20 and 0.17, respectively. The F-statistics revealed a high population structure (F_st = 0.34). Mean gene flow between population pairs was Nm = 0.96. Results were compared with those of other cycad species, and indicate that M. calocoma populations have become fragmented due to increasing pressures of habitat conversion and disturbance. Also, geographical isolation among populations has generated allele loss in relation to altitude. The establishment and maintenance of protected areas for in situ conservation is critical to preserve the high genetic diversity of M. calocoma. Conservation strategy guidelines have been specified.     

Genetic differentiation within and between isolated Algerian subpopulations of Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus): evidence from microsatellites

This study of wild-living Algerian Barbary macaques ( Macaca sylvanus ) was designed to examine genetic variability in subpopulations isolated in residual forest patches, in an attempt to obtain data on the effects of habitat fragmentation. The wild population of this species (estimated at a maximum of 15 000) is vulnerable and this study therefore has direct relevance for conservation measures. Data from five microsatellite loci were analysed for 159 individuals from nine different groups living in four isolates in Algeria. Genetic polymorphism was found to be relatively high (4–12 alleles per locus) compared with other genetic markers used in previous studies of this species; mean expected heterozygosity was 65%. The four isolates are all genetically distinct ( F _ST = 0; P < 0.001). Indeed, the results suggest that dispersal is limited even between some social groups within a single isolate. Genetic distances based on models not assuming stepwise mutation ( F _ST and chord distance) gave very similar results and are highly correlated with geographical distances within one isolate but not between isolates. This may indicate that isolation by distance exerts a significant influence within an isolate but that genetic drift prevails between the four isolates. After allowing for variation in sample size, we found no evidence of reduced allelic diversity within small isolates that may have been separated for 250 years or more. The surviving population of Algerian Barbary macaques taken as a whole still shows marked variability in microsatellite alleles, but maintenance of genetic variability over the long term will surely require effective protection of all isolates.     

Genetic diversity and genetic structure of populations of Ranunculus japonicus Thunb. (Ranunculaceae)

Abstract In order to clarify the genetic diversity and population structure of Ranunculus japonicus , allozymic analysis was conducted on 60 populations in southwestern Japan. Considerable genetic variati ons were detected among the populations of R. japonicus . The genetic diversities within species ( H _es = 0.215) and within populations ( H _ep = 0.172) were slightly higher than those of other perennial herbs with widespread distribution and outcrossing plants. Significantly higher values of fixation index were detected in some populations, which might have arisen from restricted mating partners. The majority of genetic variation (approx. 80%) resided within a population and a moderate level of genetic differentiation ( G _ST = 0.203) was observed among populations. The F _ST value (0.203) suggests the existence of a substantial population structure in this species. The highly significant correlation between geographic distance and F _ST values indicates that isolation by distance has played an important role in the construction of the genetic structure of this species.     

Genetic relatedness and population structure in the social wasp,Mischocyttarus mexicanus (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)

Summary In primitively eusocial wasps workers often retain the ability to become queens, so their continued performance in the worker role is partly dependent on elevated genetic relatedness between workers and the brood they rear. In colonies of the social wasp,Mischocyttarus mexicanus, workers were related to female pupae by 0.29±0.12, a value that is significantly below the full sister value of 0.75, but not significantly below 0.50, worker relatedness to daughters. Though individuals often build new nests within meters of their natal nest, there was no genetic population structure discernable among four nest clusters, or inbreeding of any kind.     

Genetic diversity within and among populations of Shorea leprosula Miq. and Shorea parvifolia Dyer (Dipterocarpaceae) in Indonesia detected by AFLPs

The genetic diversity within and among populations of Shorea leprosula and Shorea parvifolia from Indonesia was investigated using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). The results indicated that S. leprosula is genetically more variable than S. parvifolia. At the population level, a higher level of genetic diversity was revealed for S. leprosula with a percentage of polymorphic loci (PPL_p) of 53.32% and an expected heterozygosity (H _ep) of 0.16 in comparison with S. parvifolia showing PPL_p of 51.79% and H _ep of 0.14. At the species level, S. leprosula showed PPL_s of 92.86% and H _es of 0.21, while S. parvifolia showed PPL_s of 85.71% and H _es of 0.21. Genetic differentiation (G _st) indicated that 25 and 31% of total genetic diversity in S. leprosula and S. parvifolia, respectively, were attributed to the differences among populations. An analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) at two hierarchical levels exhibited that most genetic variation resided within populations with proportion of 70.2% for S. leprosula and 66.2% for S. parvifolia. The AMOVA at three hierarchical levels performed for S. leprosula and S. parvifolia together revealed that the genetic difference between the two species was remarkably higher with a proportion of 44.1% than the differences within and among populations (38.1 and 17.8%, respectively). The genetic differentiation between islands was significant for S. leprosula but not for S. parvifolia. The observed genetic diversity agreed with the life history traits of Shorea species. Highly differentiating individual AFLP markers were found for each species, which will serve as diagnostic markers for the identification of wood of different species, from different islands and regions.     

Genetic diversity and geographic differentiation in Tacca chantrieri (Taccaceae): an autonomous selfing plant with showy floral display

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Despite considerable investment in elaborate floral displays, Tacca chantrieri populations are predominantly selfing. It is hypothesized that this species might possess considerable spatial or temporal variation in outcrossing rates among populations. To test this hypothesis, genetic variability and genetic differentiation within and among T. chantrieri populations were investigated to find out if they are in agreement with expectations based on a predominantly inbred mating system. METHODS: Genetic diversity was quantified using inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSR) in 303 individuals from 13 populations taken from known locations of T. chantrieri in China, and from one population in Thailand. KEY RESULTS: Of the 113 primers screened, 24 produced highly reproducible ISSR bands. Using these primers, 160 discernible DNA fragments were generated, of which 145 (90.62 %) were polymorphic. This indicated considerable genetic variation at the species level. However, there were relatively low levels of polymorphism at population levels, with percentages of polymorphic bands (PPB) ranging from 8.75 % to 55 %. A high level of genetic differentiation among populations was detected based on different measures (Nei's genetic diversity analysis: G(ST) = 0.5835; AMOVA analysis: F(ST) = 0.6989). Furthermore, based on levels of genetic differentiation, the 14 populations clustered into two distinct groups separated by the Tanaka Line. CONCLUSIONS: High levels of differentiation among populations and low levels of diversity within populations at large spatial scales are consistent with earlier small-scale studies of mating patterns detected by allozymes which showed that T. chantrieri populations are predominantly selfing. However, it appears that T. chantrieri has a mixed-mating system in which self-fertilization predominates, but there is occasional outcrossing. Significant genetic differences between the two distinct regions might be attributed to vicariance along the Tanaka Line. Finally, possible mechanisms of geographic patterns based on genetic differentiation of T. chantrieri are discussed.     

Genetic diversity and genetic structure of Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) populations in eastern Japan and Central Asia

Japanese goshawk was classified as a vulnerable species in the Red Data Book. There have been possibilities of a decrease of genetic diversity accompanied by habitat loss and genetic pollution due to hybridization with escaping imported goshawks. In this paper, genetic diversity, gene flow and conservation of Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) in Japan are discussed and compared with that in Central Asia. We used 11 newly developed microsatellite markers and also adopted six previously published markers. Genetic diversity was shown to be maintained with 0.58 as mean heterozygosity and 3.95 as mean allelic richness. The degree of genetic differentiation across all populations was low (Nei’s genetic differentiation index = 0.036, Wright’s genetic differentiation index = 0.039), possibly due to gene flow via adjacent regions (average number of migrants = 4.26; 0.68–20.30). However, it is possible that slight differentiation resulted from the short divergence time and/or inflow of escaping imported individuals. We recommend that goshawks in eastern Japan should be managed as a single unit. They do not appear to be under threat genetically at present, but there is the potential for rapid loss of genetic diversity. For future conservation, investigations of dispersal routes and actual conditions of gene flow are also recommended. To prevent further inflow of escaping goshawks into natural populations, it is desirable to reduce importation of goshawks and to enact a regulation obliging purchasers to register imported goshawks. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Genetic differentiation and reproductive isolation of a naturally occurring floral homeotic mutant within a wild-type population of Capsella bursa-pastoris (Brassicaceae)

Apart from the common floral architecture in Brassicaceae, variation in flower morphology occurs in several genera within the family and is considered to affect speciation processes. We analysed genetic differentiation and flowering time variation of two floral variants of Capsella bursa-pastoris , the Spe variant and the wild-type, which occur sympatrically in a vineyard in southwest Germany. The Spe variant is characterized by an additional whorl of stamens instead of petals and was formerly classified as an independent taxon ' Capsella apetala ' Opiz. Amplified fragment length polymorphism and allozyme analysis revealed a substantial genetic differentiation of the two floral variants and a higher genetic variation within the wild-type subpopulation compared with the Spe subpopulation. The low genetic variation in the mutant provided evidence of a recent local origin or recent introduction. Flowering time analysis indicated that, within the analysed population, the Spe variant flowers significantly later than the wild-type ( P  < 0.001). We conclude that the evolution and persistence of Spe within a wild-type population is facilitated by high selfing rates and been enhanced by a shift in flowering phenology. Hence, our data provide substantial evidence that the Spe phenotype has established itself as an isolated entity within a wild-type population and may thus serve as a model for the analysis of the evolutionary significance of homeotic mutants in wild populations.     

Genetic diversity and population structure in the outcrossing populations of Equisetum arvense and E. hyemale (Equisetaceae)

An allozyme examination was conducted to study the mating systems and genetic differentiation of populations of Equisetum arvense and E. hyemale. The study revealed that the rate of intragametophytic selfing in these homosporous pteridophytes is very low, i.e., on average 0.020 and 0.019, respectively, despite the potential hermaproditism and selfing of the gametophytes. Most populations consisted of numerous genotypes, and the average heterozygosities of E. arvense and E. hyemale equalled 0.092 and 0.134, respectively. The commonly observed excess of the heterozygote genotypes indicates that there are interclonal differences in the frequency of vegetative reproduction. The level of genetic divergence among populations was considerable even within a limited geographic area. It is suggested that the life history of Equisetum, characterized by the inefficiency of spore germination and gametophyte reproduction in noncolonizing situations, limits the level of gene flow and leads to a great genetic divergence between populations.     

Genetic diversity and population structure of spottedtail goby (Synechogobius ommaturus) based on AFLP analysis

Larval dispersal may have an important impact on genetic structure of benthic fishes. To examine population genetic structure of spottedtail goby Synechogobius ommaturus, samples from five different locations of China and Kunsan population in Korea were analyzed by using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) technology. A total of 253 bands were identified from 91 individuals by 5 primer combinations and the percentage of polymorphic bands was 43.87%. The average gene diversity was 0.0794 ± 0.1470 and Shannon’s information index was 0.1279 ± 0.2138. The pairwise F_st values ranged from 0.022 to 0.201. The results of AMOVA analysis indicated that 90.54% of the genetic variation contained within populations and 9.46% occurred among populations. The gene flow estimates (Nm) demonstrated that different gene flow existed among populations from 0.994 to 11.114. No significant genealogical branches or clusters were recognized on the UPGMA tree. The results support the hypothesis that larval dispersal ability can be responsible for the genetic diversity and population structuring.     

Genetic structure in northeastern populations of the Alpine newt (Triturus alpestris): evidence for post-Pleistocene differentiation

Genetic variation in 13 populations of the Alpine newt, Triturus alpestris, was assessed at the northeastern margin of its range (southern Poland). Variation at six microsatellite loci was scored in 354 newts, and two mitochondrial DNA fragments (c. 2000 bp) were sequenced in a subset of 27 individuals. Significant differences in allele frequencies and the presence of private alleles determined genetic units corresponding to three separate mountain ranges, i.e. the Carpathian, Sudetes and Holy Cross Mountains. F(ST)'s were three times greater in among than in within mountain range pairwise comparisons. An assignment test and pairwise F(ST)'s suggested relatively high levels of gene flow at the local level, although the Sudetes populations revealed some subtle structuring. Genetic variation was lower in the Carpathians and Holy Cross Mountains. The geographic pattern of mitochondrial DNA variation indicated that these newt populations originated from a single glacial refugium/founder population, and that the colonization of southern Poland took place in an easterly direction. The data show that substantial neutral variation and between group divergence has accumulated relatively quickly in these low-vagility organisms. The Alpine newt case exemplifies species history as a factor determining patterns of genetic diversity in marginal populations.     

Genetic diversity and population structure of the threatened Bliss Rapids snail (Taylorconcha serpenticola)

1. The Bliss Rapids snail is a federally listed yet poorly known small caenogastropod which lives in the Snake River drainage (main stem river and spring‐fed tributaries) of south‐central Idaho. The construction of three large dams along this portion of the Snake River during the 20th century is thought to have fragmented a single, ancestral population of this species into genetically isolated subunits that are vulnerable to extinction. We assessed variation of 11 microsatellite loci within and among 29 samples (820 snails) from across the entire range of the Bliss Rapids snail to assess genetic structure and test whether habitat fragmentation resulting from dam construction has impacted population connectivity. 2. The overall F_ST (0.15133, P < 0.05) and pairwise comparisons among samples (384/406 significant) indicated extensive population subdivision in general. A consistent trend of isolation by distance trend was not detected by Mantel tests. We found no evidence of reduced genetic diversity attributable to segmentation of the Snake River, and genetic variation among portions of drainage separated by the dams was not significant. Population structuring in spring–tributary habitats was considerably greater than in the main stem river as evidenced by differences in F_ST (0.18370, 0.06492) and the number of private alleles detected (16, 4), and by the results of an assignment test (69.4%, 58.7% correctly classified to sample of origin) and Bayesian genetic clustering algorithm. 3. Our results provide no evidence that dam construction has genetically impacted extant populations of the Bliss Rapids snail. We speculate that the generally weaker genetic structuring of riverine populations of this species is a result of passive dispersal within the water column, which may enable occasional passage through the dams. The somewhat stronger structuring observed in a portion of the river (Shoshone reach) which receives discharge from many springs may be due to local mixing of main stem and more highly differentiated tributary populations. Our findings parallel recent, genetically based studies of other western North American freshwater gastropods that also demonstrate complex population structure that conflicts with traditional concepts of dispersal ability and sensitivity to putative barriers.     

Genetic diversity and population differentiation of chestnut blight fungus, Cryphonectria parasitica, in China as revealed by RAPD

Seventeen Cryphonectria parasitica populations sampled from six regions in China were investigated using RAPD. Across all 169 isolates from the 17 populations evaluated, 52 of the 71 markers (73%) were polymorphic, total genetic diversity (h) was 0.1463, and Shannon’s index was 0.2312. Diversity within populations accounted for 74% of total genetic diversity, and genetic differentiation among populations was 0.26 (G _ST = 0.26). Gene flow was 1.4 among the populations; higher gene flow was found among populations within regions and among regions [N _m (G _SR) = 2.8 and N _m (G _RT) = 3.5]. The unweighted pair group mean analysis (UPGMA) dendrogram revealed two distinct clusters: the northern China group and the southern China group. The spatial autocorrelation analysis revealed that the variation at most loci was randomly distributed and lacked spatial structure, but several loci and closer distances were spatially structured. Human activity and habitat could also be important factors affecting genetic structure among C. parasitica populations in China. Genetic diversity was highest in Southwest China, descending in an orderly fashion to Northeast China. This pattern indicated that Southwest China might be the center of origin of C. parasitica in China. The present study provides useful information for understanding the origin and spread of chestnut blight fungus in China and valuable data for formulating relevant strategies for controlling the disease in China.