Intra- and interspecific host discrimination in two closely related egg parasitoids

Intraspecific host discrimination is frequently found in solitary parasitoids, but interspecific host discrimination, where female parasitoids recognize hosts already parasitized by females of other species, is rare. This particular behaviour appears to be adaptive only under specific circumstances. In this paper, we quantified intraspecific host discrimination in Anaphes n. sp. (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae), an endoparasitoid of the eggs of Listronotus oregonensis (LeConte) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and interspecific host discrimination toward eggs parasitized by Anaphes sordidatus (Girault), a sympatric species competing for the same resource in similar habitats. To examine host discrimination, choice experiments were used where the females had to choose between different categories of eggs (unparasitized, parasitized by Anaphes n. sp. or A. sordidatus). Superparasitism and multiparasitism were avoided in experiments where the female had a choice between unparasitized hosts and hosts parasitized by the same female, by a conspecific or by a female A. sordidatus. When all hosts available were parasitized, conspecific superparasitism occurred more often than self-superparasitism or multiparasitism. These results indicated that females Anaphes n. sp. were capable of self-, conspecific and interspecific discrimination. Self-discrimination followed recognition of an external marking while interspecific discrimination occurred mostly after insertion of the ovipositor. Interspecific discrimination could result from the recent speciation of these species and could be associated with a genotypic discrimination. This behavior appears to be adaptive because of the competition for common hosts between the two parasitoid species.     

Intra- and interspecific variations in nuclear parameters of two closely related species of Narcissus L.

Nuclear DNA amount, nuclear area, genome volume and karyotype length were analysed in different populations of two closely related species of Narcissus. There are intra- and interspecific variations in these parameters. 4C DNA amount and karyotype length, on one hand, and 2C DNA amount and telophase nuclear area, on the other, are not correlated. It seems that DNA content and chromosome length are independent parameters. However, 4C DNA content and karyotype volume are correlated, and are also correlated to different density estimations (4C DNA to Kar.length & 2C DNA to telophase area). These facts suggest that the relative length of the chromosomes is genetically controlled and that it is independent of the DNA that they contain. It seems that the interpopulational differences in DNA content are correlated with length changes of small segments in almost all chromosomes.     

Isoenzyme differences between three closely related species of Lineus (Heteronemertea)

Starch-gel electrophoresis was employed to compare six enzymes in three closely related species of nemertean worms, Lineus ruber (Müller, 1774), Lineus sanguineus (Rathke, 1799), and Linens viridis (Müller, 1774). Differences in mobility recorded for most of the enzyme loci examined support the hypothesis that these nemerteans are distinct taxa.     

Molecular phylogeny of the Drosophila tripunctata and closely related species groups (Diptera: Drosophilidae)

We suggest a new phylogenetic hypothesis for the tripunctata radiation based on sequences of mitochondrial genes. Phylogenetic trees were reconstructed by parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods. We performed tests for hypotheses of monophyly for taxonomic groups and other specific hypotheses. Results reject the monophyly for the tripunctata group whereas monophyly is not rejected for the tripunctata radiation and other specific groups within the radiation. Although most of the basal nodes were unresolved we were able to identify four clusters within the tripunctata radiation. These results suggest the collection of additional data before a proper taxonomic revision could be proposed.     

Intra- and interspecific nestmate recognition inMelipona workers (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

The possible significance of nestmate recognition in prevention of robbing and parasitism in three species of stingless bees was assessed. Nestmate discrimination abilities vary among them; Melipona quadrifasciataworkers attacked 74% of nonnestmate conspecifics that were encountered, while M. scutellarisand M. rufiventriswere less discriminating, attacking only 14 and 60% of non-nestmates, respectively. In tests of interspecific interactions, M. quadrifasciataand M. scutellariswere the least mutually tolerant of all species pairs tested. Tests with Apis melliferashowed a high degree of intolerance by two of the three Meliponaspecies.     

Intra and interspecific sequence variation in closely related species of Cereus (CACTACEAE)

In comparative phylogenetic and population genetic studies, one of the most crucial steps is to select appropriate DNA markers, a decision based primarily on the estimated variation in markers in cross-taxonomic surveys. To assess whether genetic variation at the intraspecific level in one species predicts the variation in another closely related species we used two congeneric species of Cereus (Cactaceae: Cereeae). We screened and characterized eight noncoding plastid regions (trnS-trnG, atpI-atpH, trnT-trnL, psbD-trnT, petL-psbE, 3'rps16-5'trnk, trnG intron, and trnL intron), and one nuclear gene (PhyC) in Cereus fernambucensis and C. hildmannianus. A total of 40 individuals from 15 populations were characterized according to nucleotide diversity, number of haplotypes, and number of potentially informative characters. The results revealed that nucleotide substitutions and indels are the main source of variation, with the largest divergence between species found in trnS-trnG. The trnL intron and petL-psbE showed intraspecific variability in both species. The psbD-trnT, atpI-atpH, trnS-trnG, and trnT-trnL, which are the most variable regions in one species, showed no variation in the other. Finally, the nuclear gene PhyC showed more resolution between Cereus species than within species. We thus found considerable heterogeneity among widely used plastid markers, even between closely related species, and suggest the use of PhyC as a marker for phylogenetic inference in these species. These results reinforce the need of screening as a preliminary step to conduct phylogeographic or phylogenetic studies in face of unpredictable sequence variation of molecular markers in plants.     

Intra- and interspecific effects of larval secretions in some chrysomelids (Coleoptera)

The larval secretions of the Chrysomelinae (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) are generally considered to be chemical defense substances against predators and parasites. The experiments presented in this paper provide evidence that the range of activity of these larval secretions also extends to interactions between different conspecific developmental stages and between competing phytophagous species. Four chrysomeline species were tested: Gastrophysa viridula De Geer, Phaedon cochleariae (F.), Plagiodera versicolora (Laich.), and Phratora vitellinae (L.). In the latter species, we did not test the intraspecific effect of the natural larval secretion, but the activity of its purchasable main component, salicylaldehyde (synthetic larval secretion). In G. viridula, Ph. cochleariae, and Ph. vitellinae the (synthetic) larval secretions act as oviposition deterrents against conspecific females. An investigation of the persistence of the oviposition-deterring activity of the larval secretion in G. viridula revealed that the deterrent effect is lost after 20 to 26 hours. In each of the four tested species the (synthetic) larval secretion deters feeding of conspecific adults. Since P. versicolora and Ph. vitellinae may occur on the same host plant (e.g. the willow Salix fragilis L.), the interspecific effect of the larval secretion between competing phytophagous species was examined in these two willow leaf beetles. The larval secretions of both species and salicylaldehyde, respectively, act as interspecific repellent and feeding deterrent against adults of the other species.

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Zusammenfassung Die Sekrete der Larven der Chrysomelinae (Fam. Chrysomelidae) werden im allgemeinen als chemische Abwehrstoffe gegen Prädatoren und Parasiten betrachtet. Die hier dargestellten Untersuchungen zeigen, daß die Wirkung der Larvensekrete nicht nur auf die Feindabwehr begrenzt ist. Das Wirkungsspektrum umfaßt darüber hinaus auch Interaktionen zwischen verschiedenen Entwicklungsstadien einer Art bzw. zwischen konkurrierenden phytophagen Arten. Folgende Chrysomelinenarten wurden untersucht: Gastrophysa viridula De Geer, Phaedon cochleariae (F.), Phratora vitellinae (L.) und Plagiodera versicolora (Laich.). Da das Larvensekret von Ph. vitellinae Salicylaldehyd als Hauptkomponente enthält, wurde hier-wenn nicht anders erwähnt-die Wirkung von synthetischem Salicylaldehyd getestet. Bei G. viridula, Ph. cochleariae und Ph. vitellinae wirkt das Larvensekret bzw. die authentische synthetische Substanz als hochwirksames Eiablage-Deterrens auf konspezifische Weibchen. Die eiablagehemmende Wirkung des Larvensekretes von P. versicolora wurde nicht getestet. Eine Untersuchung der Wirkungsdauer der eiblagehemmenden Aktivität des Larvensekretes von G. viridula ergab, daß die Hemmwirkung nach 20 bis 26 Stunden nicht mehr nachweisbar ist. Bei allen oben genannten vier Arten hemmt das. Larvensekret bzw. dessen authentische synthetische Substanz den Fraß von Adulten derselben Art. Diese fraßhemmende Aktivität ist bei G. viridula, Ph. cochleariae und Ph. vitellinae mindestens 18 Stunden wirksam. Das Larvensekret von P. versicolora zeigte bei 18-stündiger Versuchsdauer keine fraßhemmende Wirkung auf Adulte derselben Art; erst bei Reduktion der Versuchsdauer auf drei Stunden konnte hier eine signifikant fraßhemmende Wirkung nachgewiesen werden. P. versicolora und Ph. vitellinae können als Weidenblattkäfer an derselben Wirtspflanze auftreten. Deshalb wurde auch die interspezifische Wirkung der Larvensekrete dieser beiden Chrysomelinenarten geprüft. Das Larvensekret von Ph. vitellinae sowie auch dessen authentische synthetische Substanz (Salicylaldehyd) wirkt auf adulte P. versicolora als Repellent und Fraßhemmstoff. Ebenso wirkt umgekehrt das Larvensekret von P. versicolora abschreckend und fraßhemmend auf adulte Ph. vitellinae.

     

Intra- and interspecific genetic differentiation in closely related pines fromPinus subsectionSylvestres (Pinaceae) in the former Soviet Union

Thirty-seven natural populations of four closely related species ofPinus subsect.Sylvestres, P. mugo, P. funebris, P. pallasiana, andP. sylvestris, occurring in the former Soviet Union were investigated by starch-gel electrophoresis. In the populations assayed 127 allelic variants at 25 loci were revealed.Nei's distance coefficient (Dn) was used to estimate the level of genetic differentiation amongP. sylvestris races and among closely related species. A dendrogram constructed using Dn values shows that of the fiveP. sylvestris races analyzed only the geographically isolated var.hamata exhibited sufficient differences at theDia-2 locus (a mean Dn value relative to the other four races is 0.025) to recognize it as a distinct taxon. The remaining races, sylvestris, cretacea, lapponica, and sibirica, have a similar gene pool (Dn values are not greater than 0.010), and they should be regarded as a single taxon,P. sylvestris var.sylvestris. Interspecific comparisons revealed thatP. sylvestris andP. mugo have the closest genetic affinities to each other withNei's genetic distance of 0.108. The dendrogram demonstrates thatP. funebris is closer toP. sylvestris andP. mugo thanP. pallasiana. The available paleontologic data allowed us to conclude thatNei's (1975) time scale estimate for the time of divergence of the taxa was more accurate thanNei's (1971) time scale estimate.     

Nesting habitat segregation between closely related terricolous sphecid species (Hymenoptera:Spheciformes): key role of soil physical characteristics

Microhabitat selection based on abiotic factors was examined in five species of digger wasps (Sphex funerarius, Ammophila heydeni, Ammophila pubescens, Ammophila sabulosa, Bembix tarsata), four of which are of high conservation interest. All the study sites were located in areas affected by anthropogenic disturbance (reclaimed brown-coal mining areas, and railway dykes) in Central Europe. The individual species responded differentially to the variability in each of the physical characteristics measured, which resulted in site-specific exclusion of individual sphecid species. The sphecids were found to discriminate between available microhabitats based on ground inclination (slope) and vegetation cover. All but A. heydeni segregated the microhabitats according to the content of gravel and sand particles. S. funerarius and B. tarsata were limited by their preferences of low soil compactness, whereas A. pubescens utilized highly compacted soils, which were predominant in the study area. Soil shear strength (cohesiveness) was driving the level of gregariousness of the sphecids. In B. tarsata, number of cells per burrow was found to be higher in soils with increased penetration resistance. Experimental increase in soil compactness led to the abandonment of nesting microhabitats in the subsequent nesting seasons. Besides the well-known biotic factors, such as specialization at different size or type of prey, variability in abiotic factors between individual microhabitats (e.g. patches of sand) was found to be both necessary and sufficient to allow the parallel presence of viable populations of several sphecid species.     

Molecular and morphological relationships between two closely related species, Turbinaria ornata and T. conoides (Sargassaceae,Phaeophyceae)

We employed four markers (two chloroplastic, one mitochondrial and one nuclear) to investigate whether Turbinaria ornata and Turbinaria conoides, two morphologically similar brown algae, are distinct species. The molecular data revealed reciprocal monophyly, thus confirming the two algae as discrete species. Nevertheless, taxonomical ambiguities remain. T. conoides is more morphologically variable than T. ornata. We identified an atypical T. conoides morphotype whose blade possesses intramarginal teeth, a morphological characteristic of the T. ornata group that is normally absent within T. conoides. The molecular data indicate, nonetheless, that this morphotype belongs genetically to the T. conoides group. Thus, the results cast doubt upon the validity of using intramarginal teeth for species diagnosis.     

Competition for hosts between two hyperparasitoids of aphids,Dendrocerus laticeps andDendrocerus carpenteri (Hymenoptera: Megaspilidae): The benefit of interspecific host discrimination

The two hyperparasitoids of aphids, Dendrocerus carpenteri(Curtis) and Dendrocerus laticeps(Hedicke), differ in their interspecific host discrimination behavior: D. carpenterireadily accepts hosts for oviposition previously parasitized by D. laticeps,whereas D. laticepsoften refrains from ovipositing on hosts previously parasitized by D. carpenteri.The two species also differ in their competitive abilities: D. carpenteriis competitively superior to D. laticepswhen the time between ovipositions is 1 h. D. carpenteri's superiority probably arises from (a) the action of the venom produced by the female to paralyze the host, as evidenced by the comparison of emergence patterns from naturally vs artificially parasitized hosts, and (b) its more rapid egg development. Because of its competitive abilities, D. carpenterigains only limited benefit from discriminating interspecifically, at least when encountering a host parasitized by a competitively inferior species, such as D. laticeps.In contrast, D. laticepsgains considerable benefit from recognizing hosts previously parasitized by D. carpenteri,as the probability to produce offspring from such hosts is greatly reduced.     

Intra- and interspecific interactions between Lysiphlebus testaceipes and Lipolexis scutellaris (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae) reared on Toxoptera citricida (Homoptera: Aphididae)

Classical biological control of the brown citrus aphid Toxoptera citricida Kirkaldy in Florida has involved the release of Lipolexis scutellaris Mackauer. Lysiphlebus testaceipes Cresson is already present in Florida and also parasitizes T. citricida. Because parasitoid-parasitoid interactions may affect the establishment of a newly introduced parasitoid species, intra- and interspecific larval interactions of both parasitoids were studied in the laboratory using T. citricida reared on citrus. Five time intervals were allowed between successive oviposition opportunities. Early developmental times were determined for both parasitoids: eggs of L. testaceipes and L. scutellaris hatched after 54.3 and 61.7 h, while molt to second instar occurred after 73.3 and 87.1 h, respectively, after oviposition at 22 degrees C. At intervals <12 h, both parasitoids had a greater tendency to multiparasitize than to superparasitize, and the tendency to superparasitize or multiparasitize decreased with an increase in time between successive oviposition opportunities. Of the 10 interspecific interactions studied, 5 produced a winning wasp species, 3 of which could be explained by the hypothesis of physical conflict. A combination of development time, age of competing larvae, and oviposition sequence were responsible for the outcomes observed. Neither parasitoid proved to be intrinsically superior when interspecific competition occurs in second- and third-instar T. citricida, indicating there is no reason to suggest that they cannot coexist in Florida citrus groves.     

Strong differences in chemical recognition cues between two closely related species of ants from the genus Lasius (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) are increasingly recognized as important to insects and are used for constructing taxonomies. However, multiple parameters affect the expression of CHCs besides a genetic component. We propose that selection may act differently on the expression of CHCs, depending on the evolutionary context. To explore the influence of selection, the CHCs of two closely related ant species, Lasius niger and Lasius platythorax, were studied in a multidisciplinary approach. We characterized (i) CHCs and (ii) niches (through baiting, activity observations and foraging analysis). The species were distinct in both measures, although to a varying degree. Although they showed moderate niche partitioning along diet and environmental preferences, chemical differences were unexpectedly pronounced. This may be explained by divergent selection on mate recognition cues or by other influences on CHCs. Such striking chemical differences among closely related species may not be the rule and suggest that taxonomies based on CHCs should be interpreted cautiously; though, they remain useful tools for differentiating among cryptic species.     

柔鱼科近缘种茎柔鱼与鸢乌贼营养生态位及相互关系

同域近缘种由于进化选择的压力,会形成不同的行为适应策略。研究同域近缘种生态位格局,有助于理解近缘物种的竞争和共存机制,是深入了解种群动态变化的基础性问题。选取东太平洋赤道海域的柔鱼科头足类近缘种茎柔鱼和鸢乌贼为研究对象,利用生物地球化学示踪物(稳定同位素和脂肪酸)分析两种头足类的营养生态位及相互关系。结果显示,茎柔鱼和鸢乌贼肌肉的部分必需脂肪酸(C18∶2n6、C20∶2n6、C20∶3n3、C20∶4n6和C20∶5n3)含量存在差异,说明二者食物来源不同,但其碳、氮稳定同位素比值无显著差异,可能是因为相同个体大小的茎柔鱼和鸢乌贼营养级相近,且摄食空间相似。这些结果在营养生态位的分析结果中也得到了验证,稳定同位素营养生态位的重叠程度高于脂肪酸营养生态位,表明脂肪酸组成更能体现同域近缘种的食性差异。本研究可加深对头足类进化过程中摄食行为适应机制的理解,并为评估同域近缘种的营养生态位关系提供有益参考。     

Intra- and interspecific variation of cuticular hydrocarbon composition in two Ectatomma species (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) based on Fourier transform infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy

We have been able to discriminate different castes and sexes of ants in the same colony by measuring cuticular hydrocarbon levels with Fourier transform infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy, compared by canonical discriminant function analysis. We have now applied this methodology to various colonies of two species of ants of the genus Ectatomma in the Brazilian Cerrado. There were clear interspecific differences in cuticular hydrocarbons of these ants, with a small intraspecific variation. The differences between colonies were greater in E. brunneum than in E. vizottoi. Genetic differences among the colonies and species were well estimated by Fourier transform infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy and statistical analyses.     

Factors governing host discrimination byOpius dimidiatus (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

The detection of, and response to, parasitized hosts by female parasitoids can involve a number of complex phenomena, including the ability of females to discriminate between unparasitized and parasitized hosts, the physiological state of females, and the nature and longevity of the cues they are detecting. The discriminatory ability of Opius dimidiatus,a solitary endoparasitoid of Liriomyza trifoliiwas examined. Experiments showed, first, that when presented with a choice of unparasitized hosts and hosts which they had previously parasitized, O. dimidiatusfemales could discriminate between them, both upon encounter (before probing) and after probing with the ovipositor. It was further demonstrated that the detection of parasitized hosts was time dependent: females could discriminate on the basis of antennal examination for up to 2.5 h after the first egg was laid. Postprobing discrimination lasted for up to 3.5 h. Some of the causal and evolutionary factors resulting in superparasitism are discussed.     

Allozymatic divergence between border populations of two cryptic species of the Drosophila buzzatii cluster species (Diptera: Drosophilidae)

Drosophila antonietae and Drosophila gouveai are allopatric, cactophilic, cryptic and endemic of South America species, which aedeagus morphology is considered the main diagnostic character. In this work, single close populations from the edge distributions of each species, located in an “introgressive corridor”, were analyzed regarding temporal isozenzymatic genetic variability. Isocitrate dehydrogenase (Idh) appeared as a diagnostic locus between D. antonieate and D. gouveai because each population was fixed for different alleles. Moreover, several polymorphic loci showed accentuated divergence in the allele frequency, as evidenced by Nei’s I (0.3188) and D (1.1432), and also by Reynolds’ genetic distance and identity (1.3207 and 0.7331, respectively). Our results showed that, in spite of the very similar external morphology, related evolutionary histories, close distributions, and events of introgression in the studied area, these cryptic species have high allozymatic differentiation, and this is discussed here.     

Intra- and interspecific chromosome polymorphisms in cultivated Cichorium L. species (Asteraceae)

Endive (Cichorium endivia L.) and chicory (C. intybus L.) both have 2n = 18, but until now, there has been no detailed karyomorphological characterization. The present work evaluated five accessions of each species using FISH with rDNA probes and fluorochrome staining with CMA and DAPI. Both species presented distinct banding patterns after fluorochrome staining: while endive had proximal CMA⁺⁺/DAPI⁻ bands in the short arms of pairs 1, 2 and 3, chicory had proximal CMA-positive bands in chromosomes 1 and 3 and interstitial in the short arm of chromosome 8. Among endive accessions, FISH procedures revealed conserved position and number of 5S and 45S rDNA sites (two and three pairs, respectively), associated with the CMA-positive bands. Notwithstanding, polymorphisms were detected within chicory accessions regarding the number and the distribution of rDNA sites in relation to the most frequent karyotype (two pairs with 45S and one with 5S rDNA). The karyological markers developed allowed karyotypic differentiation between both species, uncovering peculiarities in the number and position of rDNA sites, which suggest chromosome rearrangements, such as translocations in chicory cultivars. The interspecific and intraspecific polymorphisms observed emphasize the potential of karyomorphological evaluations, helping our understanding of the relationships and evolution of the group.     

Genomic overview of closely related fungi with different Protea host ranges

Genome comparisons of species with distinctive ecological traits can elucidate genetic divergence that influenced their differentiation. The interaction of a microorganism with its biotic environment is largely regulated by secreted compounds, and these can be predicted from genome sequences. In this study, we considered Knoxdaviesia capensis and Knoxdaviesia proteae, two closely related saprotrophic fungi found exclusively in Protea plants. We investigated their genome structure to compare their potential inter-specific interactions based on gene content. Their genomes displayed macrosynteny and were approximately 10 % repetitive. Both species had fewer secreted proteins than pathogens and other saprotrophs, reflecting their specialized habitat. The bulk of the predicted species-specific and secreted proteins coded for carbohydrate metabolism, with a slightly higher number of unique carbohydrate-degrading proteins in the broad host-range K. capensis. These fungi have few secondary metabolite gene clusters, suggesting minimal competition with other microbes and symbiosis with antibiotic-producing bacteria common in this niche. Secreted proteins associated with detoxification and iron sequestration likely enable these Knoxdaviesia species to tolerate antifungal compounds and compete for resources, facilitating their unusual dominance. This study confirms the genetic cohesion between Protea-associated Knoxdaviesia species and reveals aspects of their ecology that have likely evolved in response to their specialist niche.