Plant economy and village life in Neolithic lake dwellings at the time of the Alpine Iceman

This paper gives an overview of domesticated and wild plants used during the second half of the fourth millennium cal b.c. in a region within a semicircle of ca. 100 km radius around the find site of the Iceman. The landscape considered lies north of the main Alpine chain and includes central to eastern Switzerland and southwest Germany, mainly sites at the lakes Zug, Zürich, Constance (Bodensee), the Federsee region of Upper Swabia (Oberschwaben) and western Bavaria. From this part of central Europe, the plant remains of many well-preserved lake dwelling sites have been investigated during the last decades and much is known about daily life in these villages. Probably contemporary with the Iceman’s lifetime is one of the best-investigated settlements, Arbon Bleiche 3 on the southern shore of Lake Constance. A comparison of the Iceman’s artefacts and plant macro remains with the finds from the lake dwellings which have been studied shows striking similarities, but also differences. The Iceman’s southern provenance can be corroborated by the domestic plants found with him. He used domestic as well as wild plants, very similar to those of his contemporaries in the lakeside villages. The detailed knowledge of the manifold activities in the lakeshore village of Arbon Bleiche 3 allows us to show a rather realistic picture of daily life at the time of the Iceman.     

Palaeoethnobotanical studies of the Neolithic settlement in Hidden Valley, Farafra Oasis, Egypt

The Neolithic site at Hidden Valley, Farafra Oasis, Egypt (6028±150 – 5163±374 cal B. C.) on the shores of a playa (dry lake basin in the desert), yielded a large quantity of carbonized plant remains from post-holes, hearths, querns and a corridor. The plant remains could have become carbonised during food preparation, or when fuel included seeds. Rich and diverse floras were retrieved from 40 soil samples, in all 534 seeds, grains, spikelets, culm fragments and leaflet fragments which were attributed to 30 taxa in the flora of Egypt. Wild grasses from almost all samples represent 83% of the plant remains. Quantitative correlation between plants remains and archaeological contexts is discussed. The highest density of plant remains was recorded from pot-holes (in which pots were stood), while sediments recovered near querns show the lowest. The economy of the site was apparently based mainly on herding associated with the gathering of grasses which suggests that the climate at Farafra during the middle Holocene (6077–4511 cal B. C.) was wetter than today's, with winter and summer rainfall. A reconstruction of the vegetation around the site comprises reed plant cover, aquatic and wetland plants and desert savanna. Received March 8, 2001 / Accepted June, 2001     

Archaeobotanical analysis of some early Neolithic settlements in the Kujawy region, central Poland, with potential plant gathering activities emphasised

Neolithic settlements in the Kujawy region of central Poland are represented by seven archaeological sites which have botanical material archaeologically dated to the Linear Pottery culture (LBK) (ca. 5400-5000 cal. B.C.) and the Lengyel culture (ca. 4400-4000 cal. B.C.). The composition of plant remains suggests that Stipa pennata s.l. played a certain role in the economy of the Neolithic settlers. The presence of this xerothermic grass is best explained by local gathering rather than distant transport or coming into the sediment by chance. The finding of Hierochlo? cf. australis grains represents the first identification of this plant in archaeobotanical material from Poland. This, now rare, plant contains coumarin and for this reason could have been useful in prehistory. Other plants such as Bromus spp., Chenopodium album type, Fallopia convolvulus and Galium spp. were found in large quantities, and although common weeds now, they could also have been collected by the Neolithic settlers. Plants such as Corylus avellana and Vaccinium vitis-idaea that are typically considered to be collected as foods are present in the studied material but in very small quantities. Received September 17, 2001 / Accepted March 13, 2002     

New finds of Malus sylvestris Mill. (wild apple) from Neolithic sites in Poland

The oldes Neolithic crab apple (Malus sylvestris L.) remains have been found in the Gwoździec 2 site (southeast Poland), archaeologically dated to the earliest part of the Linear Pottery Culture. There is also another find of apple pips from Poland (Dąbki site) identified as Malus sylvestris L. and after a long discussion archaeologically dated to the proto-Neolithic period. Wild apple fruits were gathered and dried for storage, as was the case in several other sites in Europe. Received October 10, 2000 / Accepted December 13, 2000     

An experimental approach to Neolithic shifting cultivation

Archaeobotanical data from Late Neolithic lake-shore dwellings (4300-3500 cal B.C.) in the northern Pre-alpine lowlands are interpreted in different ways. The presence of permanent arable fields as well as arable fields with short fallow phases and shifting cultivation with slash-and-burn has been discussed. To test these hypotheses experimentally we have been conducting tests in a forest northeast of Stuttgart since 1994. The slightly south-exposed experimental area of approximately 4.5 ha on a loess soil is covered by mixed deciduous forest, is available for at least 20 years and has been divided into 34 plots of 30 × 30 m. Up to 2001, five plots were used for experiments. The normal procedure is clearing, burning the dry small timber (less than 10 cm in diameter) and then growing winter cereals (bread wheat) for one season. The yields were between 2000 and 4000 kg grains per ha. The harvest was more or less free from weeds. First attempts with summer crops gave much lower yields of about 1100 kg grains per ha. Continuous cereal growing on the same place in the following years resulted in minimal to zero yields, mainly due to vigorous weed growth. These weeds are not crop weeds, but forest perennials of clearings and forest fringes. Ploughing to remove the weeds is not possible, because of the presence of roots and tree-stumps, most of them still living. Weed regulation by hoeing, burning or cattle grazing remains to be tested. Protection of the crop from game and birds is by fences and nets, but protection from mice seems difficult. In the spectra from the pollen traps, clearing and burning are strongly indicated, but cereal growing only slightly. Received July 31, 2001 / Accepted April 9, 2002     

Punica granatum L. (pomegranates) from early Roman contexts in Vindonissa (Switzerland)

At the later legionary camp of Vindonissa, early Roman (Augustan-Claudian) structures were excavated during a rescue excavation between 1996 and 1998. In phase 2 (10 B.C. until 0), seven in situ carbonised wooden barrels, dug into the ground, were found. They belonged to a rather large building which was most probably used as storage facility. Two of the barrels contained, in the bottom layers, several hundred seeds and pericarp fragments of Punica granatum L. (pomegranates). A large number of other "exotic" plant taxa such as olive, walnut, pine, pistacio, peach, cherry (and probably date) were also found in rather large quantities. Above all, the finds of pomegranates are unique: they are the first finds of this Mediterranean fruit in regions north of the Alps. The origin, use, and other archaeological finds of the pomegranate in the Roman period are discussed. A comparison with other early Roman spectra shows that such large quantities of "exotic" useful plants are mainly present at larger military sites like the legionary camps of Novaesium or Oberaden. It must also be suggested that the pre-camp phases in Vindonissa already had a military charaeter, although this is not at all clear from the other archaeological finds. The precise role of the site is still a matter of debate. Received November 22, 2001 / Accepted February 19, 2002     

Observations on the relationship between the extracellular changes of taurine and glutamate during cortical spreading depression, during ischemia, and within the area surrounding a thrombotic infarct

Summary. Taurine and glutamate were monitored by microdialysis technique during various cerebral insults: a. Application of K⁺ triggered a cortical spreading depression (CSD). Taurine and glutamate increased concomitantly but recovery of glutamate was faster than that of taurine. b. Application of NMDA induced also CSD but only taurine increased. c. Induction of an infarct triggered repetitive CSDs. Taurine increased rapidly whereas glutamate rose slowly starting with some delay. d. After induction of ischemia, taurine and glutamate increased after onset of depolarisation. The increase of glutamate occurred late after a small, transient increase in parallel with the depolarisation. These data suggest a close functional relationship between the changes of both amino acids. Therefore, they should be monitored together especially in clinical settings: during excitation, only taurine will increase; during overexcitation, taurine will also increase but to a higher maximum followed by a moderate rise of glutamate; after energy failure, taurine will accumulate to its highest level followed by a continuous rise of glutamate. Received January 25, 2000/Accepted January 31, 2000     

Charred plant remains from a 10th millennium B.P. kitchen at Jerf el Ahmar (Syria)

The Pre-potteryNeolithic A (PPNA) site of Jerf el Ahmar, Syria, dated to the 10th millennium uncal B.P., has produced over 657 flotation samples which are now under study. The results described in this article were obtained from the analysis of 32 samples of charred plant remains taken from a room of 2.5 × 3 m, which had been destroyed by fire. The room contained three saddle querns, two flat polished stone plates (each of 60 cm in diameter), one hearth, and three limestone "basins". These objects were in situ and the room appeared to represent a food preparation area (kitchen). On one of the querns two charred seed cakes were found. The finely ground seeds have been identified as Brassica/Sinapis, a rare taxon for this period. The major taxa, which are morphologically wild, have distinct spatial distributions, which provide evidence for plant processing activities. Hordeum spontaneum and Triticum/Secale were processed separately. The association of H. spontaneum with stone basins suggests soaking of this grain. Received August 10, 2001 / Accepted January 7, 2002     

Questioning the relevance of shifting cultivation to Neolithic farming in the loess belt of Europe: evidence from the Hambach Forest experiment

Despite widespread criticism, the shifting cultivation model continues to inform discussion of Neolithic farming in Europe, beginning with early Neolithic (Linearbandkeramik or LBK) communities concentrated in the loess belt of western-central Europe. Hundreds of LBK and later Neolithic sites have been excavated in this region and many of them sampled for charred plant remains. Archaeobotanical data on the weed floras harvested with crops provide the most direct archaeological evidence of crop husbandry practices, including the permanence of crop fields, but have played a limited role in the debate over shifting cultivation. The Hambach Forest experiment, conducted in the 1970s-80s near Cologne, Germany, provides valuable comparative data on the weed floras growing in newly cleared cultivation plots in an area of longlived mixed oak woodland on loess-based soil. Correspondence analysis of the Hambach weed survey data suggests that weed floras of fields managed under a shifting cultivation regime would be rich in perennial species, including woodland perennials. Comparison of these results with Neolithic weed assemblages from the loess belt of western-central Europe strongly suggests that Neolithic crop fields were not recently cleared of woodland vegetation but were long-established. Received September 5, 2001 / Accepted February 26, 2002     

Selective determination of mimosine and its dihydroxypyridinyl derivative in plant systems

Summary. Our observations on the growth stimulatory nature of mimosine, (β-(3-hydroxy-4-pyridon-1-yl)-L-alanine), the toxic non-protein plant amino acid, in some model experimental systems, warranted sensitive and selective routine estimations. For the determination of both mimosine and DHP, an indirect spectrophotometric method was developed based on their individual reaction with known excess of DZSAM and by estimating the remaining DZSAM with N-(1-naphthyl)ethylene-diamine (NEDA). The resultant decrease in the secondary coupled product was measured at 540 nm. On equimolar basis, DHP had 40% of the reactivity of mimosine while interference from other relevant compounds was 15–35%. The determination of mimosine and DHP in tissue samples under different physiological conditions was effected after paper chromatographic separation of mimosine and DHP with distinctly differing R_f, from other compounds. The indirect method is superior in terms of absolute selectivity, sensitivity and ease of applicability with linear decreases in absorbance, proportional to increasing concentrations of mimosine from 0.1 to 0.75 μM or DHP from 0.2 to 1.5 μM and with recoveries of 99.2 to 100.5%.     

Micromechanics and anatomical changes during early ontogeny of two lianescent Aristolochia species

 The mechanical properties of young stems of Aristolochia macrophylla Lam. and Aristolochia brasiliensis Mart. et Zucc. were studied during elongation growth and primary differentiation. Data for the modulus of elasticity, for the viscoelastic behaviour caused by longitudinal tension and for the shear modulus resulting from torsion around a longitudinal axis were related to the underlying structural changes by quantitative analysis of stem anatomy, tissue distribution, ultrastructure, and cell wall biochemistry. The orientation of cellulose microfibrils was determined by light microscopy and small-angle X-ray diffraction, and the lignin content was determined by thioglycolic acid derivatization and spectroscopic quantification. It was demonstrated that the increase in stability during early development is due to the complementary effects of increase in cell wall material, lignification, and cellulose microfibril alignment. A detailed micromechanical model, considering internal prestresses, is proposed to explain the characteristic biphasic stress-strain behaviour as well as the strain-hardening observed. Received: 22 March 1999 / Accepted 9 September 1999     

A dynamical model for plant cell wall architecture formation

We discuss a dynamical mathematical model to explain cell wall architecture in plant cells. The highly regular textures observed in cell walls reflect the spatial organisation of the cellulose microfibrils (CMFs), the most important structural component of cell walls. Based on a geometrical theory proposed earlier [A. M. C. Emons, Plant, Cell and Environment 17, 3–14 (1994)], the present model describes the space-time evolution of the density of the so-called rosettes, the CMF synthesizing complexes. The motion of these rosettes in the plasma membrane is assumed to be governed by an optimal packing constraint on the CMFs plus adherent matrix material, that couples the direction of motion, and hence the orientation of the CMF being deposited, to the local density of rosettes. The rosettes are created inside the cell in the endoplasmatic reticulum and reach the cell-membrane via vesicles derived from Golgi-bodies. After being inserted into the plasma membrane they are assumed to be operative for a fixed, finite lifetime. The plasma membrane domains within which rosettes are activated are themselves also supposed to be mobile. We propose a feedback mechanism that precludes the density of rosettes to rise beyond a maximum dictated by the geometry of the cell. The above ingredients lead to a quasi-linear first order PDE for the rosette-density. Using the method of characteristics this equation can be cast into a set of first order ODEs, one of which is retarded. We discuss the analytic solutions of the model that give rise to helicoidal, crossed polylamellate, helical, axial and random textures, since all cell walls are composed of (or combinations of) these textures. Received: 10 July 1999 / Revised version: 7 June 2000 / Published online: 16 February 2001     

Abnormal changes of plasma acute phase proteins in schizophrenia and the relation between schizophrenia and haptoglobin (Hp) gene

Summary. In this study we focused on detecting schizophrenia related changes of plasma proteins using proteomic technology and examining the relation between schizophrenia and haptoglobin (Hp) genotype. We investigated plasma proteins from schizophrenic subjects (n = 42) and healthy controls (n = 46) by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) in combination with mass spectrometry. To further reveal the genetic relationship between acute phase proteins (APPs) and schizophrenia disease, we tested Hp α1/Hp α2 (Hp 1/2) polymorphism and two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of Hp, rs2070937 and rs5473, for associations with schizophrenia in the Chinese Han population. With the relatively high number of samples for 2-DE work, we found that four proteins in the family of positive APPs were all up-regulated in patients. In genetic association study, we found significant associations existing between schizophrenia and Hp polymorphisms, Hp 1/2 and rs2070937 variants. Schizophrenia is accompanied by both an altered expression of Hp protein and a different genotype distribution of Hp gene, demonstrating that Hp is associated with schizophrenia. The results from proteomic and genomic aspects both indicate that acute phase reaction is likely to be an aetiological agent in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, but not just an accompanying symptom. The positive APPs are schizophrenic related proteins, with the highly concordant results on four positive APPs. The first two authors contributed equally.     

Age-related changes of alpha-crystallin aggregate in human lens

Summary. Lens alpha-crystallin, composed of two subunits alpha A- and alpha B-crystallin, forms large aggregates in the lens of the eye. The present study investigated the aggregate of human lens alpha-crystallin from elderly and young donors. Recombinant alpha A- and alpha B-crystallins in molar ratios of alpha A to alpha B at 1:1, corresponding to the aged sample, were also studied in detail. We found by ultra-centrifugation analysis that the alpha-crystallin aggregate from elderly donors was large and heterogeneous with an average sedimentation coefficient of 30 S and a range of 20–60 S at 37 °C. This was higher compared to the young samples that had an average sedimentation coefficient of 17 S. The sedimentation coefficients of recombinant alpha A- and alpha B-crystallins were approximately 12 S and 15 S, respectively. Even when recombinant alpha-crystallins were mixed in molar ratios equivalent to those found in vivo, similar S values as the native aged alpha-crystallin aggregates were not obtained. Changes in the self-association of alpha-crystallin aggregate were correlated to changes in chaperone activity. Alpha-crystallin from young donors, and recombinant alpha A- and alpha B-crystallin and their mixtures showed chaperone activity, which was markedly lost in samples from the aged alpha-crystallin aggregates.     

Molecular, functional and ultrastructural characterisation of plastids from six species of the parasitic flowering plant genus Cuscuta

 Hydroponically cultivated barley plants were exposed to nitrogen (N)-deficiency followed by N-resupply. Metabolic and genetic regulation of fructan accumulation in the leaves were investigated. Fructan accumulated in barley leaves under N-deficiency was mobilized during N-resupply. The enhanced total activity of fructan-synthesizing enzymes, sucrose:sucrose 1-fructosyltransferase (EC 2.4.1.99) and sucrose:fructan 6-fructosyltransferase (6-SFT; EC 2.4.1.10) caused by N-deficiency decreased with the mobilization of fructan during N-resupply. The activity of the barley fructan-degrading enzyme, fructan exohydrolyase (EC 3.2.1.80) was less affected by the N status. The low level of foliar soluble acid invertase activity under N-deficiency conditions was maintained during the commencement of N-resupply but increased subsequently. Further analyses by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, western blot and northern blot demonstrated that the fructan accumulation and the total activity of fructan-synthesizing enzymes correlated with the 6-SFT mRNA level. We suggest that the changes in fructan levels under N stress are intimately connected with the regulation of fructan synthetic rate which is mostly controlled by 6-SFT. Received: 25 October 1999 / Accepted: 15 February 2000     

The presence of two-grained einkorn at the time of the Bandkeramik culture

At the end of the 6th millennium B. C. Triticum monococcum (einkorn) and Triticum dicoccum (emmer) were the main cereals of the early Neolithic Bandkeramik culture in central Europe. New archaeobotanical investigations at relevant Bandkeramik sites reveal the regular occurrence of morphologically two-grained einkorn. Some preliminary thoughts on the state of research and the possible origin of two-grained einkorn forms are presented here. Received January 7, 2002 / Accepted August 5, 2002 Correspondence to: Angela Kreuz     

Vegetation in the mountains of northwest Iberia during the last glacial-interglacial transition

A new core taken from a site in the Sierra de Courel range of mountains in the northwest Iberian peninsula, Spain, enables a palaeoenvironmental reconstruction to be made of the biological events resulting from climatic changes and human activities during the last 17,000 years in the area. The sequence begins with a phase characterised by the dominance of Gramineae (Poaceae) and Pinus. A markedly arid period with prevalence of Artemisia pollen occurred between 17,5000 and 15,500 uncal. B.P. Subsequently, a succession of woodlands with Betula, Pinus and other mesophilous and thermophilous trees was recognised during the period 15,500-13,500 uncal. B.P. Between 13,500 and 10,300 uncal. B.P. herbaceous vegetation formations indicating moister conditions dominated the pollen record, although a maximum of Gramineae has been dated during the period 11,300-10,300 uncal. B.P. Comparison with other pollen data from neighbouring mountains allows an interpretation of the vegetation changes during the glacial/interglacial transition in the mountains of northwest Iberia. The Holocene pollen record from the site does not differ markedly from other records in the area, tree expansion occurring before 10,000 uncal. B.P. and high values of deciduous Quercus mixed with other trees and shrubs persisting until 3500 uncal. B.P., when increased human activities are shown by a fall of the tree pollen percentages. Received July 7, 1999 / Accepted May 22, 2000     

Blood amino acids concentration during insulin induced hypoglycemia in rats: the role of alanine and glutamine in glucose recovery

Summary. Our purpose was to determine the blood amino acid concentration during insulin induced hypoglycemia (IIH) and examine if the administration of alanine or glutamine could help glycemia recovery in fasted rats. IIH was obtained by an intraperitoneal injection of regular insulin (1.0 U/kg). The blood levels of the majority of amino acids, including alanine and glutamine were decreased (P < 0.05) during IIH and this change correlates well with the duration than the intensity of hypoglycemia. On the other hand, the oral and intraperitoneal administration of alanine (100 mg/kg) or glutamine (100 mg/kg) accelerates glucose recovery. This effect was partly at least consequence of the increased capacity of the livers from IIH group to produce glucose from alanine and glutamine. It was concluded that the blood amino acids availability during IIH, particularly alanine and glutamine, play a pivotal role in recovery from hypoglycemia.     

Abscisic acid-induced changes in inositol metabolism in Spirodela polyrrhiza

 In response to abscisic acid (ABA), the duckweed Spirodela polyrrhiza (L.) activates a developmental pathway that culminates in the formation of dormant structures known as turions. Levels of the mRNA encoding d-myo-inositol-3-phosphate synthase (EC.5.5.1.4) which converts glucose-6-phosphate to inositol-3-phosphate, increase early in response to ABA. In order to understand the role of this enzyme in turion formation, we have investigated changes in inositol metabolism in ABA-treated plants. Here, we show that ABA-treatment leads to a 3-fold increase in free inositol, which peaks 2 d after treatment. This increase is followed by sequential increases in inositol phosphates and in accumulation of inositol hexakisphosphate (InsP₆), in particular. In addition, we observed an early increase in a novel inositol bisphosphate which is not directly on the pathway to InsP₆. In control plants, we observed synthesis and turnover of both inositol pentakisphosphate and InsP₆. Two compounds more polar than InsP₆ (diphosphoinositol polyphosphates) were present in both ABA-treated and control plants. Together, this suggests that the role of InsP₆ in plants may be more complex than simply that of a storage compound during dormancy. Received: 10 January 2000 / Accepted: 25 February 2000