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1.
Zhaobin Song Zidong Fu Chunlin He Danzhou Shen Bisong Yue 《Environmental Biology of Fishes》2009,84(2):159-171
Effects of water temperature, starvation and photoperiod on otolith increment formation in larval Chinese sucker, Myxocyprinus asiaticus, were examined in this study. The results demonstrated that otolith increments of larvae reared under diel temperature fluctuations
were very clear and appeared with a high contrast, while those of larvae raised under constant water temperatures were vague
or hard to identify. The increment deposition rates were less than 1.0/day in later stage of starvation period. Also, increment
deposition was affected by cyclic regimes of water temperature fluctuations, the number of increments corresponded to the
cycle times rather than the exact days larvae experienced. However, varying of feeding frequency and photoperiod did not result
in any alterations of daily increment formation. Increment width increased obviously with higher rearing temperatures till
several days after yolk absorption. However, the width presented an ontogenetic decline during period of endogenous nutrition
and the first several days of exogenous nutrition stage. Starvation decoupled the relationship between somatic growth and
otolith growth; otolith kept growing, and increment width of starved larvae was similar to those in fed individuals before
9–20 days old; the divergence of increment width from the fed larvae occurred in later stage of starvation period. It can
be concluded that temperature regimes and food levels are the major factors affecting increment formation in terms of clarity,
deposition rate and width, while photoperiod and feeding frequency have less influence on it. 相似文献
2.
Otolith development was observed and the formation of daily growth increments in otoliths of Chinese sucker, Myxocyprinus asiaticus, was validated by monitoring known-age larvae and juveniles in the laboratory from 2003 to 2005. Otolith shape changed with
larval and juvenile development, and there was an exponential relationship until a body length of 16 mm or so, and a linear
relationship after a body length of 16 mm between otolith size and fish size. The first increment was identified in larvae
1 day after hatching. The regressed equations between daily age (D) and increment number in otoliths (N) were N = −0.64 + 0.96D
in lapillus, and N = −0.31 + 0.98D in sagitta. The slopes were not significantly different than 1.0. This demonstrated that
otolith increments in this species were formed daily and can be used for daily age determination. 相似文献
3.
Abstract This study reports on the low temperature tolerance and cold hardiness of larvae of false codling moth, Thaumatotibia leucotreta. We found that larvae have mean critical thermal minima (lower limits of activity) of 6.7°C which was influenced by feeding status. The effects of low temperature exposure and duration of exposure on larval survival were assessed and showed that the temperature at which 50% of the population survives is ?11.5 ± 0.3°C after 2 h exposure. The supercooling point (SCP, i.e., freezing temperature) was investigated using a range of cooling rates and under different conditions (feeding and hydration status) and using inoculative freezing treatments (in contact with water or orange juice). The SCP decreased significantly from ?15.6°C to ?17.4°C after larvae were fasted for 24 h. Twenty‐four hour treatments at either high or low relative humidity (95.9% or 2.4%) also significantly decreased SCP to ?17.2°C and ?18.2°C respectively. Inoculative freezing (by water contact) raised SCP from ?15.6°C to ?6.8°C which could have important implications for post‐harvest sterilization. Cooling rates did not affect SCP which suggests that there is limited phenotypic plasticity of SCP during the larval life‐stage, at least over the short time‐scales investigated here. In conclusion, larvae of T. leucotreta are chill‐susceptible and die upon freezing. These results are important in understanding this pest's response to temperature variation, understanding pest risk status and improving post‐harvest sterilization efficacy. 相似文献
4.
Jana Podhorna Cindy Aubernon Marie Borkovcova Julien Boulay Valery Hedouin Damien Charabidze 《Insect Science》2018,25(5):883-893
The thermoregulation behavior of Lucilia sericata larvae (Diptera: Calliphoridae), a necrophagous species that feeds on vertebrate cadavers, was investigated. These larvae require high heat incomes to develop, and can elevate temperatures by forming large aggregates. We hypothesized that L. sericata larvae should continue to feed at temperatures up to 38 °C, which can be reached inside larval masses. Thermal regulation behavior such as movement between a hot food spot and colder areas was also postulated. The hypotheses were tested by tracking for 1 h the activity of single, starved third instar larvae in a Petri dish containing 1 food spot (FS) that was heated to a constant temperature of 25 °C, 34 °C or 38 °C with an ambient temperature of 25 °C. The influence of previous conspecific activity in the food on larval behavior was also tested. The crops of larvae were dissected to monitor food content in the digestive systems. Based on relative crop measurements, larvae fed at all food temperatures, but temperature strongly affected larval behavior and kinematics. The total time spent by larvae in FS and the duration of each stay decreased at high FS temperature. Previous activity of conspecifics in the food slightly increased the time spent by larvae in FS and also decreased the average distance to FS. Therefore, necrophagous L. sericata larvae likely thermoregulate during normal feeding activities by adjusting to local fluctuations in temperature, particularly inside maggot masses. By maintaining a steady internal body temperature, larvae likely reduce their development time. 相似文献
5.
Cindy Aubernon Julien Boulay Valéry Hédouin Damien Charabidzé 《Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata》2016,160(2):101-108
Due to the ephemeral nature of carcasses they grow on, necrophagous blowfly larvae should minimize the time spent on the cadaver. This could be achieved by moving to high‐temperature areas. On that basis, we theorized that larvae placed in a heterogeneous thermal environment would move to the higher temperature that speed up their development. This study was designed to (1) test the ability of necrophagous larvae to orientate in a heterogeneous thermal environment, and (2) compare the temperatures selected by the larvae of three common blowfly species: Lucilia sericata (Meigen), Calliphora vomitoria (L.) and Calliphora vicina (Robineau‐Desvoidy). For this purpose, we designed a setup we named Thermograde. It consists of a food‐supplied linear thermal gradient that allows larvae to move, feed, and grow in close‐to‐real conditions, and to choose to stay at a given temperature. For each species and replication, 80 young third instars were placed on the thermal gradient. The location of larvae was observed after 19 h, with fifteen replications per species. The larvae of each species formed aggregations that were always located at the same temperatures, which were highly species‐specific: 33.3 ± 1.52 °C for L. sericata, 29.6 ± 1.63 °C for C. vomitoria, and 22.4 ± 1.55 °C for C. vicina. According to the literature, these value allows a fast development of the larvae, but not to reach the maximum development rate. As control experiments clearly demonstrate that larval distribution was not due to differences in food quality, we hypothesized that the local temperature selection by larvae may result from a trade‐off between development quality and duration. Indeed, temperature controls not only the development rate of the larvae, but also the quality of their growth and survival rate. Finally, results raise questions regarding the way larvae moved on the gradient and located their preferential temperature. 相似文献
6.
Effects of temperature and hydrology on growth of shovelnose sturgeon Scaphirhynchus platorynchus (Rafinesque, 1820) in the lower Mississippi River
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We evaluated the effects of thermal and hydrologic conditions on the growth of shovelnose sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus platorynchus) in the lower Mississippi River, USA. Duration of water temperatures 12–24°C had a positive influence and temperatures below 11°C had a negative influence on annual growth increment, but these two variables accounted for less than 15% of the variation in growth. Duration of water temperatures above 28°C, duration of floodplain inundation, duration of low water, and minimum and maximum river stage did not influence annual growth increment. Growth of shovelnose sturgeon in the lower Mississippi River appears to be positively influenced by duration of moderate water temperatures but minimally influenced by hydrologic conditions. The low variation accounted for by thermal and hydrologic variables suggests annual growth increment may be largely influenced by additional abiotic or biotic factors. 相似文献
7.
J. Linares‐Casenave I. Werner J. P. Van Eenennaam S. I. Doroshov 《Zeitschrift fur angewandte Ichthyologie》2013,29(5):958-967
The effects of thermal stress on survival, development and heat shock protein (hsp) expression of green sturgeon (GS) yolk‐sac larvae, from hatching through yolk depletion were investigated to provide insight into effects of highly altered natural river hydrographs. Hatched GS larvae were reared at constant water temperatures 18°C (control) through 28°C at 2°C increments. Larval survival significantly decreased at 26–28°C, with 28°C being lethal. Significant proportions of deformed larvae were found at sub‐lethal (20–26°C) and lethal 28°C rearing temperatures, with kyphosis (i.e. backward flexion of notochord) accounting for >99% of morphological deformities. Histological analysis of larvae preparations indicate that elevated water temperature affects notochord cell function and physiology. At rearing temperatures 20–28°C, thermal stress elicited a quick (24 h) and long lasting (yolk‐sac absorption) significant over‐expression of measured heat shock proteins (hsps), all of which are known components of intracellular protein repair and stabilization mechanism. Thermal sensitivity, as indicated by the incidence of abnormalities and expression of different hsps, varied significantly between crosses. Thermally tolerant progeny exhibited a short but rapid hsp72 (size in kDa) over‐expression, and more pronounced hsp60 and hsp90 over‐expression, than less tolerant progeny which exhibited a prolonged hsp72 and hsp78 over‐expression. At environmentally relevant water temperatures bent larvae exhibited spiral swimming, which in the wild would compromise the ability of emerging larvae to forage, avoid predators, and migrate downstream, ultimately compromising survival and recruitment. Before larvae hsp content can be used as a thermal‐stress biomarker for GS, field validation studies are needed. 相似文献
8.
LEKHNATH KAFLE PO-YUNG LAI YIN-FU CHANG 《Insect Science》2005,12(5):381-385
Functional response of a solitary, larval-pupal endoparasitoid of Liriomyza leafminers, Ganaspidium utilis Beardsley, was estimated on Liriomyza trifolii Burgess at three temperatures (17℃, 25℃, 29℃ ) and host densities. A type Ⅱ random parasitoid equation (RPE) was used to estimate instantaneous search rate and handling time. The instantaneous search rate increased as temperature increased. All of the RPE regressions obtained for functional response of G. utilis at different temperatures were significant (P〈0.01). The slope of RPE regression lines was lower across the temperatures. At 29±2℃, the maximum number of larvae parasitized was 7.8 per day. It decreased to 7.2 larvae parasitized at 25±2℃. At 17±2℃, no significant increment of parasitization was observed due to the host density increments. The estimated handling time was lowest at 17±2℃ and highest at 25 ± 2℃, respectively. The ability of G. utilis to find and parasitize L. trifolii over a wide range of temperatures makes them a good candidate for biological control of Liriomyza leafminers. 相似文献
9.
F. Lahnsteiner 《Zeitschrift fur angewandte Ichthyologie》2012,28(5):745-751
The present study investigated the effect of increased water temperature on sperm motility when activated in water, on egg water hardening, on the fertilization process and on embryonic development in brown trout, Salmo trutta. Brown trout gametes had a broad temperature optimum ranging from 3 to 15°C. In this temperature range the processes of egg water hardening and fertilization were unaffected. Motility duration was also not affected. The percentages of initial sperm motility and swimming velocity were lower at 9–15°C than at 3–7°C, while the percentage of locally motile spermatozoa was higher. Exposure of brown trout embryos to ≥11°C resulted in reduced percentages of hatched larvae and in increased percentages of malformed larvae. More advanced ontogenetic stages (stages ≥9 according to Ballard [1973]) showed higher tolerance to increased temperature than did less advanced stages (stages <9) when the percentage of eyed stage embryos was used as the evaluation end point. However, when the percentages of hatched larvae and normal shaped larvae were used as evaluation end points, no differences in thermotolerance could be found between the different otogenetic stages. 相似文献
10.
Moving south: effects of water temperatures on the larval development of invasive cane toads (Rhinella marina) in cool‐temperate Australia
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The distributional limits of many ectothermic species are set by thermal tolerances of early‐developmental stages in the life history; embryos and larvae often are less able to buffer environmental variation than are conspecific adults. In pond‐breeding amphibians, for example, cold water may constrain viability of eggs and larvae, even if adults can find suitable thermal conditions in terrestrial niches. Invasive species provide robust model systems for exploring these questions, because we can quantify thermal challenges at the expanding range edge (from field surveys) and larval responses to thermal conditions (in the laboratory). Our studies on invasive cane toads (Rhinella marina) at the southern (cool‐climate) edge of their expanding range in Australia show that available ponds often average around 20°C during the breeding period, 10°C lower than in many areas of the toads’ native range, or in the Australian tropics. Our laboratory experiments showed that cane toad eggs and larvae cannot develop successfully at 16°C, but hatching success and larval survival rates were higher at 20°C than in warmer conditions. Lower temperatures slowed growth rates, increasing the duration of tadpole life, but also increased metamorph body mass. Water temperature also influenced metamorph body shape (high temperatures reduced relative limb length, head width, and body mass) and locomotor performance (increased speed from intermediate temperatures, longer hops from high temperatures). In combination with previous studies, our data suggest that lower water temperatures may enhance rather than reduce recruitment of cane toads, at least in areas where pond temperatures reach or exceed 20°C. That condition is fulfilled over a wide area of southern Australia, suggesting that the continuing expansion of this invasive species is unlikely to be curtailed by the impacts of relatively low water temperatures on the viability of early life‐history stages. 相似文献
11.
Temperature plays a key role in the biology of ectotherms, including anurans, which are found at higher elevations in the tropics than anywhere in the temperate zone. High elevation tropical environments are characterized by extreme daily thermal fluctuation including high daily maxima and nightly freezing. Our study investigated the contrasting operative temperatures of the anurans Telmatobius marmoratus and Pleurodema marmoratum in different environmental contexts at the same elevation and biome above 5,200 m. Telmatobius marmoratus avoids extremes of daily temperature fluctuation by utilizing thermally buffered aquatic habitat at all life stages, with minimal operative temperature variation (range: 4.6–8.0°C). Pleurodema marmoratum, in contrast, experienced operative temperatures from ?3.5 to 44°C and has one of the widest thermal breadths reported for any tropical frog, from >32°C (critical thermal maximum) to surviving freezing periods of 1 and 6 hr down to ?3.0°C. Our findings expand experimental evidence of frost tolerance in amphibians to the widespread Neotropical family Leptodactylidae, the first such evidence of frost tolerance in a tropical amphibian. Our study identifies three strategies (wide thermal tolerance breadth, use of buffered microhabitats, and behavioral thermoregulation), which allow these tropical frogs to withstand the current wide daily thermal fluctuation above 5,000 m.a.s.l. and which may help them adapt to future climatic changes. Abstract in Spanish is available with online material 相似文献
12.
Yukio Shimoji 《Applied Entomology and Zoology》2011,46(1):51-54
The relationship between temperature and the development of the West Indian sweet potato weevil, Euscepes postfasciatus, on an artificial larval diet containing powdered sweet potato root, was examined at different fixed temperatures from 22
to 31°C. The developmental periods for egg, larvae, and pupae stages shortened in correlation with increased temperature.
The thermal constant was 769.2 degree-days and the developmental zero for female and male was 11.1 and 11.7°C, respectively.
Although we can rear this weevil at temperatures ranging from 22 to 31°C, rearing temperatures should be kept between 25 and
28°C because the developmental stages were too long at 22°C and the larval period was delayed at 31°C. The basis for these
developmental data will be a useful key factor in designing a plan to eradicate the weevil by using a mass-rearing system
and SIT. 相似文献
13.
Joseph T. Mrnak Laura B. Heironimus Daniel A. James Steven R. Chipps 《Journal of fish biology》2020,97(6):1690-1700
Natural reproduction of pallid sturgeon Scaphirhynchus albus has been limited for decades and a recruitment bottleneck is hypothesized to occur during the larval stage of development. In this study, we evaluated the effects of water velocity and temperature on the swimming activity, energy use, settling behaviour and mortality of endogenously feeding larvae. The swimming activity of drifting sturgeon larvae (i.e., fish exhibiting negative rheotaxis) increased at low water velocity. In subsequent experiments, we observed greater energy depletion and resultant mortality of larvae in no-flow environments (0 cm s−1) compared to tanks with water velocity ranging from 3.5 to 8.3 cm s−1. The growth rate of drifting larvae was positively related to water temperature (18.7–23.3°C), but reduced growth rate at low water temperature (18.7°C) resulted in protracted development that extended average drift duration by ~4 days compared to larvae reared at 23.3°C. This study provides evidence that cooler summer water temperatures, characteristic of present-day conditions in the upper Missouri River, can reduce larval development and extend both the drift duration and distance requirements of S. albus. Moreover, if dispersed into low velocity environments, such as in reservoir headwaters, larvae may experience increased mortality owing to a mismatch between early life stage drift requirements and habitat conditions in the river. Manipulation of water releases to increase seasonal water temperature below dams may aid survival of S. albus larvae by shortening the time and distance spent drifting. 相似文献
14.
K. Hüssy H.‐H. Hinrichsen D. P. Fey Y. Walther A. Velasco 《Journal of fish biology》2010,76(7):1640-1654
Transverse sections of otoliths from Atlantic cod Gadus morhua from the Baltic Sea revealed narrow growth increments. The widths of these increments corresponded to daily increments from fish with known otolith growth rates and were therefore assumed to be daily increments. They exhibited a distinct pattern with increasing distance from the primary primordium. A series of zones with clearly distinguishable increments, first with increasing then with decreasing widths in a dome‐shaped pattern, were separated by zones where no regular increment structure was visible. Increment width seemed to be tightly coupled to the annual cycle in environmental temperature at a depth of 30–60 m, where G. morhua predominantly reside. Between 135 and 200 increments occurred within the different zones, with a non‐significant trend towards lower increment numbers and widths with distance from the primary primordium of the otolith. Increment formation apparently ceased at temperatures < 5–6° C, but growth during the cold months corresponded closely with estimated growth rates. The increment patterns seemed to reflect annual cycles in environmental temperature, and the count of the increment cycles may thus be a promising tool for the determination of the true age of Baltic G. morhua. 相似文献
15.
Rising sea temperatures may potentially affect the dispersive larval phase of sessile marine invertebrates with consequences
for the viability of adult populations. This study demonstrated that the planktonic larvae of Rhopaloeides odorabile, a common Great Barrier Reef sponge, survived and metamorphosed when exposed to temperatures up to 9°C above the annual maximum
(~29°C). Planktonic larval duration of 54 h, at ambient temperatures (~28°C), were reduced to 18 h for larvae exposed to elevated
temperatures (32–36°C). Moreover, at ambient temperatures larvae began metamorphosing after 12 h, but at 32–36°C this reduced
to only 2 h. Larvae survived and could still metamorphose at temperatures as high as 38°C, but were no longer functional at
40°C. These results imply that predicted increases in sea surface temperature may reduce planktonic larval duration and dispersal
capabilities, thereby contributing to population subdivision of the species. 相似文献
16.
Bruton MJ Cramp RL Franklin CE 《Journal of comparative physiology. B, Biochemical, systemic, and environmental physiology》2012,182(4):541-551
The presumption that organisms benefit from thermal acclimation has been widely debated in the literature. The ability to
thermally acclimate to offset temperature effects on physiological function is prevalent in ectotherms that are unable to
thermoregulate year-round to maintain performance. In this study we examined the physiological and behavioural consequences
of long-term exposure to different water temperatures in the aquatic snake Acrochordus arafurae. We hypothesised that long dives would benefit this species by reducing the likelihood of avian predation. To achieve longer
dives at high temperatures, we predicted that thermal acclimation of A. arafurae would reduce metabolic rate and increase use of aquatic respiration. Acrochordus arafurae were held at 24 or 32°C for 3 months before dive duration and physiological factors were assessed (at both 24 and 32°C).
Although filesnakes demonstrated thermal acclimation of metabolic rate, use of aquatic respiration was thermally independent
and did not acclimate. Mean dive duration did not differ between the acclimation groups at either temperature; however, warm-acclimated
animals increased maximum and modal dive duration, demonstrating a longer dive duration capacity. Our study established that
A. arafurae is capable of thermal acclimation and this confers a benefit to the diving abilities of this snake. 相似文献
17.
S. D. Kashenko 《Russian Journal of Marine Biology》2009,35(5):422-430
The combined effects of temperatures of 14, 17, 20, 22, and 25°C and salinities of 36–12‰ on embryos and larvae of the sand
dollar Scaphechinus mirabilis was studied. Embryonic development is the most sensitive stage in the early ontogenesis of S. mirabilis. It is completed at a temperature of 14–20°C in a salinity range of 36–24‰ and at temperature of 22°C to 26‰. The fertilization
proceeds in wider ranges of temperature and salinity. Among the swimming larvae, blastulae showed the greatest resistance
to variations of these environmental factors. All the larvae survived at a temperature of 14–22°C and a salinity of 36–20‰,
and more than 70% of them at 18‰. The pluteus I is the most vulnerable stage; probably this is related to the formation of
the larval skeleton and transition to phytoplankton feeding. The survival of larvae at the age of 20 days was 100% at 14–22°
C and a salinity of 36–24‰, most of them survived at 14–20°C and a salinity 18‰. The temperature 25 ° C is the most damaging
for early development of S. mirabilis. The duration of development of that species lasts 28.5–29 days at 20°C and a salinity of 32.2–32.6‰. At 20 and 22°C, the
larvae settled and completed metamorphosis more quickly if sand from the parental habitat was present. The larvae did not
settle during the experiment (14 days) at 14 ° C and in the absence of sand. 相似文献
18.
MICHAEL ROGER WORLAND 《Physiological Entomology》2010,35(2):140-147
During the late 1960s, larvae of the flightless midge Eretmoptera murphyi Schaeffer were accidentally transferred from the sub‐Antarctic island of South Georgia to Signy Island in the maritime Antarctic. Higher insects are rare in the Antarctic and the introduction and establishment of a new species is an unusual event. The fly has overcome the two major barriers to colonization of the Antarctic by new species: the geographical isolation of the region and its severe climate. Larvae of the flightless midge overwinter in the surface layers of soil on Signy Island where the temperature may fall to below ?10 °C, compared with as little as ?1.5 °C on South Georgia. This suggests the possession of a level of pre‐adaption to colder conditions. Summer‐collected larvae have a supercooling point (SCP or whole body freezing point) of approximately ?5.0 °C but survive experimental exposure to ?13 °C, giving them a level of freeze tolerance. After acclimation at ?4 °C for 4 days, the SCP changes little but the temperature at which 50% of the population would die decreases to lower than ?19 °C. Larvae are also resistant to dehydration. Under experimental conditions of 88% relative humidity at 5 °C, larvae lose water linearly (0.42% h?1) over the first 30 h but resist further water loss once their water content decreases to approximately 1.4 g g?1 dry weight. All larvae survive these conditions for the duration of the experiment (55 h). Eretmoptera murphyi is well adapted to survive on Signy Island, and these studies suggest that it has the ability to survive at more extreme locations at higher latitudes if it were to be inadvertently transferred to a suitable habitat. 相似文献
19.
The occurrence of diapause and quiescence was investigated in Argas reflexus engorged larvae, nymphs I and nymphs II. For diapause experiments, larvae were maintained at five different locations: at
constant 20°C long day (LD; 17 h light:7 h dark) or short day (SD; 10 h light:14 h dark), at two locations with natural photoperiod
and temperature and at one location with natural photoperiod but constant 15°C. At 20°C, diapause incidence was low in physiologically
young larvae, increased with larval age, and then decreased to zero in specimens of increased physiological age. This pattern,
observed both at constant LD and SD, suggests that the propensity to diapause changes with the physiological age of the unfed
larva. The duration of diapause decreased with increasing larval physiological age at all locations, resulting in a seasonally
synchronized moulting pattern. The results suggest that A. reflexus larvae are photoperiodically sensitive both before and after feeding and that decreasing daylengths may be particularly strong
inductive stimuli. The developmental zero and thermal constant of the larvae were determined as 13.24°C and 220 degree-days,
respectively. Degree-day measurements revealed that larval A. reflexus may enter a diapause of different length when fed between August and December and kept at natural daylength. Development
of engorged nymphs I and nymphs II, but not of larvae, was ultimatively restricted at a temperature of 37.5°C, but immediately
resumed at 25°C, demonstrating the occurrence of quiescence at high temperatures. Similarly, at a low temperature of 15°C,
many nymphs I and II did not develop within 58 months, but did so successfully after transfer to 25°C, without additional
food intake.
Received: 20 May 1997 / Accepted: 4 August 1997 相似文献
20.
The temperature tolerances of embryonic and early larval development stages of Tripneustes gratilla were investigated from 13-34°C under laboratory conditions. Zygotes showed unequal cleavage at 13°C, whereas cleavage did
not occurred at 34°C. Hatching was observed between 16–31°C with maximum hatching rates observed at 22–29°C. The lower and
higher temperature limits for embryonic development were approximately 22°C and 29°C, respectively. Outside of this temperature
range, embryos showed abnormality at different incubation times. Early larvae of this species have the ability to survive
the higher temperature limit for short periods of time. Prism and 2 arm pluteus larvae survived at temperatures between 30
and 33°C, whereas 4 arm pluteus larvae survived at temperatures between 30 and 36°C for 2 h. These results suggest that the
larval temperature tolerance capability of T. gratilla is stage dependent. These findings are important for understanding the life history strategy of this sea urchin in the shallow
open water environment. 相似文献