Investigation of the effect of growth environment on the stability of low-copy-number plasmids in Escherichia coli

The stability of a low-copy-number plasmid, pHSG415, in Escherichia coli, was investigated in batch and continuous culture. The plasmid was unstable in batch culture, but was significantly stabilized by growth in continuous culture with phosphate, nitrogen or potassium limitation. However, the plasmid was very unstable when grown in continuous culture with sulphate limitation. These results contrast with those obtained with multicopy plasmids such as pBR322, which is particularly unstable in carbon- or phosphate-limited continuous culture. The effect of growth rate on the stability of E. coli(pHSG415) grown in continuous culture with glucose limitation was also investigated. The plasmid was significantly more stable in cells grown at higher growth rates. The segregational instability (R) of the plasmid and the difference in growth rate between plasmid-free and plasmid-bearing cells (dmu) were calculated for each condition using the method of Cooper et al. (accompanying paper: Journal of General Microbiology 133, 1871-1880). It was found that the primary cause of the loss of pHSG415 from the cell population was the segregational instability of the plasmid.     

Recombinant protein synthesis and plasmid instability in continuous cultures of Escherichia coli JM103 harboring a high copy number plasmid

Escherichia coli JM103[pUC8] was employed as a model to investigate the behavior of a recombinant microbial system harboring a plasmid at high copy numbers. Experiments with batch and continuous cultures of recombinant and plasmid-free cells were conducted in a well-controlled bio-reactor. In batch experiments, plasmid copy number varied typically from an average of 500 during the exponential growth phase to as high as 1250 during the stationary phase. While the segregational plasmid instability was negligible in batch experiments, severe segregational instability occurred in continuous experiments conducted over a range of dilution rates, resulting in complete loss of plasmid-bearing cells from the continuous cultures within few residence times after transition to continuous operation. The profound differences in the specific growth rates and mass yields of the plasmid-free and plasmid-bearing cells resulting from the extra metabolic burden on the plasmid-bearing cells mainly due to excessive plasmid DNA content was the major cause for the plasmid instability. Plasmid multirnerization was detected in batch and continuous cultures and was found to have significant influence on the effective copy number and was partially responsible for the severe segregational instability in continuous cultures. A quasi-steady state representative of plasmid-bearing cells was established in the initial portion of each continuous culture experiment. Due to the profound growth rate differential between the two types of cells, transients of considerable duration were observed in each continuous culture experiment (initiated with a pure culture of plasmid bearing cells) following the slow accumulation of plasmid-free cells near the end of the quasi-steady state. Significant variations in various culture parameters (including a rapid decline in the plasmid-bearing fraction of the total cell population) occurred during this period, leading ultimately to a steady state for a culture dominated entirely by plasmid-free cells. In continuous cultures, plasmid copy number during the quasi-steady states increased with decreasing dilution rate from 50 (at 0.409 h(-1)) to 941 (at 0.233 h(-1)). Production of the plasmid-encoded protein (beta-lactamase) in these experiments was maximized at an intermediate dilution rate, corresponding to an optimum copy number of about 450. A similar optimum copy number was observed in batch cultures. Significant excretion of beta-lactamase was observed at both low and high dilution rates.     

Plasmid stability in immobilized and free recombinant Escherichia coli JM105(pKK223-200): importance of oxygen diffusion, growth rate, and plasmid copy number.

Stability of the plasmid pKK223-200 in Escherichia coli JM105 was studied for both free and immobilized cells during continuous culture. The relationship between plasmid copy number, xylanase activity, which was coded for by the plasmid, and growth rate and culture conditions involved complex interactions which determined the plasmid stability. Generally, the plasmid stability was enhanced in cultured immobilized cells compared with free-cell cultures. This stability was associated with modified plasmid copy number, depending on the media used. Hypotheses are presented concerning the different plasmid instability kinetics observed in free-cell cultures which involve the antagonistic effects of plasmid copy number and plasmid presence on the plasmid-bearing/plasmid-free cell growth rate ratio. Both diffusional limitation in carrageenan gel beads, which is described in Theoretical Analysis of Immobilized-Cell Growth, and compartmentalized growth of immobilized cells are proposed to explain plasmid stability in immobilized cells.     

Stability of a recombinant plasmid carrying a-amylase gene in Bacillus subtilis

Plasmid pSB6 is a streptococcal recombinant plasmid carrying the a-amylase gene of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and the chloramphenicol resistance gene. The segregational and structural instabilities of this plasmid were examined under non-selective conditions in Bacillus subtilis. These instabilities were modelled according to a kinetic expression derived from the difference in the growth between plasmid-bearing and plasmid-free cells. This plasmid showed slight segregational instability and much higher levels of structural instability under the conditions examined.     

Stability of a recombinant plasmid carrying a-amylase gene in Bacillus subtilis

Plasmid pSB6 is a streptococcal recombinant plasmid carrying the a-amylase gene of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and the chloramphenicol resistance gene. The segregational and structural instabilities of this plasmid were examined under non-selective conditions in Bacillus subtilis. These instabilities were modelled according to a kinetic expression derived from the difference in the growth between plasmid-bearing and plasmid-free cells. This plasmid showed slight segregational instability and much higher levels of structural instability under the conditions examined.     

Plasmid stability in immobilized and free recombinant Escherichia coli JM105(pKK223-200): importance of oxygen diffusion, growth rate, and plasmid copy number

Stability of the plasmid pKK223-200 in Escherichia coli JM105 was studied for both free and immobilized cells during continuous culture. The relationship between plasmid copy number, xylanase activity, which was coded for by the plasmid, and growth rate and culture conditions involved complex interactions which determined the plasmid stability. Generally, the plasmid stability was enhanced in cultured immobilized cells compared with free-cell cultures. This stability was associated with modified plasmid copy number, depending on the media used. Hypotheses are presented concerning the different plasmid instability kinetics observed in free-cell cultures which involve the antagonistic effects of plasmid copy number and plasmid presence on the plasmid-bearing/plasmid-free cell growth rate ratio. Both diffusional limitation in carrageenan gel beads, which is described in Theoretical Analysis of Immobilized-Cell Growth, and compartmentalized growth of immobilized cells are proposed to explain plasmid stability in immobilized cells.     

Immobilization of Escherichia coli JM103[pUC8] in kappa-carrageenan coupled with recombinant protein release by in situ cell membrane permeabilization.

Immobilization of Escherichia coli JM103[pUC8] was carried out with kappa-carrageenan as the support matrix. Substantial natural excretion of beta-lactamase, attributable to the less intact membrane of plasmid-harboring cells, was observed in immobilized cell cultures. Nevertheless, a significant portion of the beta-lactamase produced was retained in the cells. As compared to suspension cultures, much higher beta-lactamase activities, especially in the extracellular liquid, and much longer retention of plasmid-bearing cells (improved plasmid stability) were observed in immobilized cell cultures. Further enhancement in excretion of the recombinant protein (beta-lactamase) was achieved by permeabilization of cell membrane by periodic exposure of the immobilized cell cultures to ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). While the presence of EDTA led to some suppression of cell growth in suspension cultures, cell growth in gel beads was not affected by EDTA to the same extent, possibly due to lesser exposure of immobilized cells to EDTA. Exposure of immobilized cell cultures to EDTA presumably inhibited plasmid replication and led in turn to diversion of cellular resources for the support of expression of plasmid genes. Indeed, treatment of the immobilized cell cultures with EDTA resulted in increased production of beta-lactamase when compared to the enzyme production in EDTA-free cultures. More frequent addition of EDTA increased the period of retention of plasmid-bearing cells in these cultures but did not have any noticeable adverse effect on synthesis of beta-lactamase. Improvement in plasmid stability in EDTA-treated immobilized cell cultures was ascribed to the reduction in the growth rate differential between plasmid-free and plasmid-bearing cells, since plasmid-free cells were subject to more reduction in specific growth rate than were plasmid-bearing cells.     

Plasmid maintenance in Escherichia coli recombinant cultures is dramatically, steadily, and specifically influenced by features of the encoded proteins

A set of eight closely related plasmid constructs carrying CI857-controlled recombinant genes has been used as a model to study plasmid stability in Escherichia coli, in the absence of antibiotic selection. Plasmid loss rates and relative interdivision times of plasmid-bearing cells and plasmid-free cells have been analyzed throughout prolonged cultures. Whereas the calculated plasmid loss rates are not consistent for a given plasmid and set of conditions, the relative growth fitness of plasmid-bearing cells is highly reproducible. In the absence of gene expression, plasmid maintenance is influenced by the length of the cloned segment, the growth temperature, and the plasmid copy number, but not by the plasmid size. At high, inducing temperatures, the effects of the metabolic burden are eclipsed by the toxicity exhibited by the different proteins produced, which is determined by structural features. Despite the multifactorial nature of the negative pressures acting independently on plasmid-bearing cells, the relative cell fitness in a mixed cell population is very reproducible for a given vector, resulting in a monotonous spread of the plasmid-free cells in recombinant cultures.     

A single-cell assay of beta-galactosidase in recombinant Escherichia coli using flow cytometry

A flow cytometric method was developed for the assay of beta-galactosidase in single Escherichia coli cells. A new fluorogenic substrate for beta-galactosidase, C(12)FDG, contains a lipophilic group that allows the substrate to penetrate through cell membranes under normal conditions. When the substrate is hydrolyzed by intracellular beta-galactosidase, a green fluorescent product is formed and retained inside the cell. Consequently, the stained beta-galactosidase-positive cells exhibit fluorescence, which is detected by flow cytometry. This new assay was used to analyze the segregational instability caused by a reduction in specific growth rate of the plasmid-bearing cells in the T7 expression system. Induction results in a substantial accumulation of intracellular beta-galactosidase along with a rapid increase in the fraction of plasmid-free cells. Once the cells lose the plasmid, they no longer produce beta-galactosidase, which is reduced by at least half every generation; thus, after staining, the fluorescent, plasmid-bearing cells can be distinguished from the nonfluorescent, plasmid-free cells using flow cytometry. This article describes the feasibility of the flow cytometric assay for single E. coli cells and reports the optimal assay conditions. A direct relationship between beta-galactosidase activity and green fluorescence intensity was found, and the fractions of recombinant cells in batch cultures were analyzed after various levels of induction.     

Variation and modeling of the probability of plasmid loss as a function of growth rate of plasmid-bearing cells of Escherichia coli during continuous cultures

A large number of models concerning cultures of genetically engineered bacteria have been described. Among them, some are specifically adapted to continuous cultures and lead to the determination of two variables: (i) the difference in the specific growth rates between plasmid-carrying cell and plasmid-free cells (deltamu) and (ii) the frequency of plasmid loss by plasmid-containing cells (p(r)mu(+)). Until now, studies have been performed on the global expression p(r)mu(+) and deltamu, whose value during continuous assays have been supposed approximately constant (mean value) and not on separate values of both terms p(r) and mu(+), respectively, probability of plasmid loss and specific growth rate of the plasmid-carrying cells. So far these studies do not allow examination of the relationship between these two last parameters. Experimental results were obtained with Escherichia coli C600 galk (GAPDH), a genetically engineered strain that synthetizes an elevated quantity of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). From data obtained during continuous cultures, it is shown that during an assay, deltamu, and p(r)mu(+) do not remain constant. An appropriate mathematical analysis of the expression of mu(-) (specific growth rate of the plasmid-free cells) and mu(+) has been built up. This allows the evaluation of the values of mu(+) and mu(-) during the continuous cultures carried out at different dilution rates. Values of p(r) have been calculated from these data. Indeed our results show that p(r) increases with mu(+). A modeling approach which allows correct simulation of this variation is also proposed. This model is derived from the Hill equation regarding cooperative binding of enzymic type reaction. (c) 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

质粒在大肠杆菌对噬菌体抗性中的作用

The introduction of the ColV, I-K94 or R124 plasmid into Escherichia coli K12 resulted in resistance to certain phages. Derivatives of E. coli carrying the plasmid R124 and ColV, I-K94 were resistance to the phages T4, Mel comparing with the plasmid-free parent and the plasmid ColV, I-K94 conferred resistance to the phage Tull*. It suggested that an envelope change caused by the plasmids might be responsible for the resistance because most of the phages fell to absorb to the plasmid-bearing E. coli cells.     

Plasmid retention and gene expression in suspended and biofilm cultures of recombinant Escherichia coli DH5alpha(pMJR1750)

Differences in plasmid retention and expression are studied in both suspended and biofilm cultures of Escherichia coli DH5alpha(PMJR1750). An alternative mathematical model is proposed which allows the determination of plasmid loss probability in both suspended batch and continuously fed biofilm cultures. In our experiments, the average probability of plasmid loss of E. coli DH5alpha(pMJR1750) is 0.0022 in batch culture in the absence of antibiotic selection pressure and inducer. Under the induction of 0.17 MM IPTG, the maximum growth rate of plasmid-bearing cells in suspended batch culture dropped from 0.45 h(-1) to 0.35 h(-1) and the beta-galactosidase concentration reached an experimental maximum of 0.32. pg/cell 4 hours after the initiation of induction. At both 0.34 and 0.51 mM IPTG, growth rates in batch cultures decreased to 0.16 h(-1), about 36% of that without IPTG, and the beta-galactosidase concentration reached an experimental maximum of 0.47 pg/cell 3 hours after induction.In biofilm cultures, both plasmid-bearing and plasmid-free cells in increase with time reaching a plateau after 96 hours n the absence of both the inducer and any antibiotic selection pressure. Average probability of plasmid loss for biofilm-bound E. coli DH5beta(pMJR1750) population was 0.017 without antibiotic selection. Once the inducer IPTG was added, the concentration of plasmid-bearing cells in biofilm dropped dramatically while plasmid-free cell numbers maintained unaffected. The beta-galactosidase concentration reached a maximum in all biofilm experiments 24 hours after induction; they were 0.08, 0.1, and 0.12 pg/cel under 0.17, 0.34, and 0.51 mM IPTG, respectively. (c) 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Amino acid supplementation decreases plasmid retention in Escherichia coli

The effect of amino acid supplementation on plasmid stability in Escherichia coli B/r was tested experimentally. Comparisons of experimental results to computer-predicted values were made using a detailed, structured single-cell model. The plasmid, pDW17 (a pBR322 derivative with a mutated tac promoter controlling the beta-lactamase gene), was used. In chemostat cultures, the amino acid supplemented cultures were always less stable than those grown in minimal medium. This effect was not a growth rate effect, as increasing growth rate imsproves stability for both cultures in minimal medium and in amino acid supplemented medium. The computer model also predicted a decrease in stability due to amino acid supplementation. The model also predicts that amino acid supplementation, combined with moderately strong plasmid-encoded protein expresion, results in a depletion of low-molecular-weight organics compared with plasmid-free cells. In minimal medium the same level of plasmid-encoded protein synthesis results in a strong reduction in amino acid pools compared with plasmid-free cells. With amino acid supplementation the growth differential between plasmid-bearing and plasmid-free cells may be due to an "energy limitation," while in minimal medium the size of the growth rate differential may be due to a "building block" limitation. (c) 1992 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Large-scale preparation of ribulosebisphosphate carboxylase from a recombinant system in Escherichia coli characterized by extreme plasmid instability

An ampicillin-resistant, RecA- strain of Escherichia coli (HB101) harboring the multicopy pBR322 plasmid containing the structural gene for ribulosebisphosphate carboxylase from Rhodospirillum rubrum was used to prepare large quantities of the carboxylase protein. This recombinant system was characterized by extreme plasmid instability, which resulted in part from the 1.7-fold faster growth rate of plasmid-free cells and in part from very rapid rates of plasmid segregation. The plasmid-containing organisms produced and excreted a large amount of beta-lactamase activity, with the result that ampicillin selection could only be maintained for a very short period of time, after which the plasmid-containing (carboxylase-producing) cells were overgrown by plasmid-free cells. The instability was so severe that even isolated colonies prepared on ampicillin-containing plates were impure and contained plasmid-free cells. Nevertheless, large quantities of carboxylase protein could be obtained from this system by using a highly dilute inoculum which allows selection of ampicillin-resistant (carboxylase-producing) organisms for a sufficient period of time so that the period of growth under nonselective conditions was minimized, and cells harvested at high cell densities contained large amounts of the carboxylase protein. In the present instance, 300-liter fermentations were initiated with a 0.3-microliter inoculum of freshly grown cells. After 20 h of growth in rich medium containing ampicillin, the harvested cells contained 74 g of ribulosebisphosphate carboxylase protein (average of two separate cultures). These results are discussed in terms of the general nature of plasmid instability and protocols available to minimize the effects of such instability.     

Stability in continuous cultures of recombinant bacteria: A metabolic approach

Continuous-culture population dynamics of recombinant bacteria are predicted with a structured kinetic model. The instantaneous specific growth rates of the plasmid-bearing and plasmidfree cells are explicitly calculated from their metabolic activities. The resultant growth-rate differential (between plasmid-bearing and plasmid-free cells) is dynamic and changes over the course of a fermentation. Further, the growth-rate differential is a function of dilution rate. We present the experimental determination of model constants governing plasmid replication and foreign protein expression for a host/vector systemE. coli RR1 [pBR329]. For a different experimental system, we estimate the increased polypeptide expression from a DNA insert solely from the instability population dynamics. Stability predictions agree quite well with experimental observations from the literature and our lab.     

Stability of recombinant plasmids on the continuous culture of Bifidobacterium animalis ATCC 27536

Bifidobacterium animalis ATCC 27536 represents among bifidobacteria a host-model for cloning experiments. The segregational and structural stabilities of a family of cloning vectors with different molecular weights but sharing a common core were studied in continuous fermentation of the hosting B. animalis without selective pressure. The rate of plasmid loss (R) and the specific growth rate difference (delta mu) between plasmid-free and plasmid-carrying cells were calculated for each plasmid and their relationship with plasmid size was studied. It was observed that both R and the numerical value of delta mu increased exponentially with plasmid size. The exponential functions correlating the specific growth rate difference and the rate of plasmid loss with the plasmid molecular weight were determined. Furthermore, the smallest of the plasmids studied, pLAV (4.3-kb) was thoroughly characterized by means of its complete nucleotide sequence. It was found that it contained an extra DNA fragment, the first bifidobacterial insertion sequence characterised, named IS 1999.     

Determination of kinetic parameters related to the piasmid instability: for the recombinant fermentation under repressed condition

The plasmid stability under the repressed state of cloned gene was studied theoretically as well as experimentally using recombinant E. coli K12DeltaH1Deltatrp/pPLc23trpA1 as a "host-vector" model system. The important kinetic parameters studied were the plasmid loss rate (theta) describing the rate at which the plasrnid-harboring cells lose plas-mids and the plasmid-free cells are generated per unit time and the difference in growth rates (Delta) between the two genotypes. These parameters were carefully defined, studied, and compared with other key kinetic parameters involved in the recombinant fermentation to further our understanding of metabolism of recombinants. The ratio of the concentration of plasmid-free cells to plasmid-harboring cells (Omega) was introduced, and the mathematical model was derived and used for the determination of the kinetic parameters associated with plasmid instability. These methods developed based on the theoretical considerations were tested experimentally. The results of these methods were compared, and the best method was selected and recommended. The effect of temperature and dilution rate on kinetic parameters theta and Delta were also studied in continuous culture, in order to provide some practical information related to the operation and control of recombinant fermentation processes.     

Recombinant protein excretion in Escherichia coli JM103[pUC8]: Effects of plasmid content, ethylenediaminetetraacetate, and phenethyl alcohol on cell membrane permeability

The presence of a high copy number plasmid (pUC8) was found to affect integrity of the cell envelope of Escherichia coli JM103, causing in turn significant release of the plasmid-encoded protein (beta-lactamase). The alterations in cell membrane permeability were evident from the increased susceptibility of recombinant cells to deoxycholic acid and methylene blue, which did not have appreciable effect on plasmid-free cells. The deteriorated cell membrane structure also resulted in a substantial reduction in specific growth rate and mass yield of plasmid-bearing cells. Further enhancement in beta-lactamase excretion was achieved by permeabilizing cell membrane with ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) and phenethyl alcohol (PEA). Unlike other commonly used physical and chemical methods for releasing the enzymes accumulated in the cells, application of EDTA and PEA at appropriate concentrations neither led to cell death nor interrupted synthesis of the plasmid-encoded protein. While in situ application of PEA was complicated due to interference with beta-lactamase activity, in situ application of EDTA was found to be an efficient way of releasing the recombinant protein without sacrificing its productivity. The experimental results demonstrate that the presence of EDTA and PEA can substantially reduce the growth rate differential between plasmid-free and plasmid-bearing cells, suggesting possible improvement of plasmid stability by application of these cell membrence-permeabilizing agents on a periodic basis.     

Large-scale preparation of ribulosebisphosphate carboxylase from a recombinant system in Escherichia coli characterized by extreme plasmid instability.

An ampicillin-resistant, RecA- strain of Escherichia coli (HB101) harboring the multicopy pBR322 plasmid containing the structural gene for ribulosebisphosphate carboxylase from Rhodospirillum rubrum was used to prepare large quantities of the carboxylase protein. This recombinant system was characterized by extreme plasmid instability, which resulted in part from the 1.7-fold faster growth rate of plasmid-free cells and in part from very rapid rates of plasmid segregation. The plasmid-containing organisms produced and excreted a large amount of beta-lactamase activity, with the result that ampicillin selection could only be maintained for a very short period of time, after which the plasmid-containing (carboxylase-producing) cells were overgrown by plasmid-free cells. The instability was so severe that even isolated colonies prepared on ampicillin-containing plates were impure and contained plasmid-free cells. Nevertheless, large quantities of carboxylase protein could be obtained from this system by using a highly dilute inoculum which allows selection of ampicillin-resistant (carboxylase-producing) organisms for a sufficient period of time so that the period of growth under nonselective conditions was minimized, and cells harvested at high cell densities contained large amounts of the carboxylase protein. In the present instance, 300-liter fermentations were initiated with a 0.3-microliter inoculum of freshly grown cells. After 20 h of growth in rich medium containing ampicillin, the harvested cells contained 74 g of ribulosebisphosphate carboxylase protein (average of two separate cultures). These results are discussed in terms of the general nature of plasmid instability and protocols available to minimize the effects of such instability.