Adaptations of crop-raiding baboons in Kenya

A field study of baboon behavior as it relates to crop-raiding was conducted on the Kenya Coast. The results proved useful for quantifying the distribution, movement, and other factors of their behavior. Such variables as troop organization, crop season, and the behavior of the farmers influence raiding behavior. Apparently diversionary activities of crop-raiding baboons result from troop distribution along habitat margins between farms and forest and from baboon vigilance behavior.     

Effects of vegetation type on habitat use by crop-raiding Japanese macaques during a food-scarce season

Habitat use by crop-raiding Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) was studied in western Japan from December 2005 to February 2006, a food-scarce season. To examine how different vegetation types affect habitat use by monkeys, two crop-raiding troops were compared: the first troop inhabited a habitat involving more wild food resources; the second troop inhabited a habitat providing fewer wild food resources. It was hypothesized that monkeys living in the habitat with fewer wild food resources are more likely to utilize human settlements and areas around them (i.e. adjacent zones), with a dependence on crop foods. Comparisons of observed and expected habitat use frequencies showed that the first troop selected evergreen broad-leaved forests and conifer plantations, and avoided adjacent zones, rice fields, and golf courses. The second troop selected adjacent zones and avoided conifer plantations, pine forests, and deciduous broad-leaved forests. Both troops moved rapidly in avoided habitat types. These results suggest that monkeys living in the habitat with fewer wild food resources are more likely to utilize areas around human settlements during a food-scarce season.     

Crop Damage by Primates: Quantifying the Key Parameters of Crop-Raiding Events

Human-wildlife conflict often arises from crop-raiding, and insights regarding which aspects of raiding events determine crop loss are essential when developing and evaluating deterrents. However, because accounts of crop-raiding behaviour are frequently indirect, these parameters are rarely quantified or explicitly linked to crop damage. Using systematic observations of the behaviour of non-human primates on farms in western Uganda, this research identifies number of individuals raiding and duration of raid as the primary parameters determining crop loss. Secondary factors include distance travelled onto farm, age composition of the raiding group, and whether raids are in series. Regression models accounted for greater proportions of variation in crop loss when increasingly crop and species specific. Parameter values varied across primate species, probably reflecting differences in raiding tactics or perceptions of risk, and thereby providing indices of how comfortable primates are on-farm. Median raiding-group sizes were markedly smaller than the typical sizes of social groups. The research suggests that key parameters of raiding events can be used to measure the behavioural impacts of deterrents to raiding. Furthermore, farmers will benefit most from methods that discourage raiding by multiple individuals, reduce the size of raiding groups, or decrease the amount of time primates are on-farm. This study demonstrates the importance of directly relating crop loss to the parameters of raiding events, using systematic observations of the behaviour of multiple primate species.     

Mitigating crop raiding by forest elephants and baboons at Kibale National Park

In Africa, most protected forests are in densely human-dominated landscapes where human–wildlife conflict is intense. We documented farmer perceptions and responses to crop-raiding wildlife from Kibale National Park, Uganda. Crop raiding was mostly (95%) by baboons (Papio anubis) and elephants (Loxodonta africana). While the financial loss caused by baboons and elephants did not differ, elephants were perceived as more damaging. Guarding and trenches were perceived as the most effective deterrent strategies for baboons and elephants, respectively. Distance from the park boundary and household income were significantly associated with a greater likelihood of crop raiding. Distance from the park, household head age and the species that raided crops, influenced whether a household applied one or more deterrent strategies. Households headed by women or older adults were most vulnerable, experiencing greater losses to raiding. Patterns of human–wildlife conflict around Kibale forest are complex, but the extent of crop damage was mostly determined by distance from the park and farm socio-economic status and thus their ability to mitigate or deter raiding. Managing crop raiding requires collaboration between the park and affected farmers to ensure that mutually managed deterrent methods, such as trenching (elephants) and guarding (baboons), are effectively shared, applied and maintained.     

Crop protection and conflict mitigation: reducing the costs of living alongside non-human primates

Conflict between farmers and primates increasingly impacts conservation efforts in Africa and Asia. Field crops provide a reliable and readily-accessible source of food for primates coping with habitat loss. However, crop-raiding undermines food security and tolerance of wildlife within neighbouring human communities. Many primates consume crops regularly yet there are few accounts of systematic evaluation of techniques to deter them. Working in partnership with farmers, this study was conducted over two growing seasons within four villages adjacent to the Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda. Using systematic observational sampling, semi-structured interviews, and focus groups, we (i) monitored primate crop-raiding behaviour prior to and after installing locally-appropriate deterrents, developed with local farmers, and (ii) explored farmers’ initial responses to the methods trialled. Deterrent efficacy was assessed by comparing the frequency and characteristics of raiding events across seasons. Primates were the predominant diurnal crop-raiders; six species were observed raiding. Deterrents implemented included barriers, alarms, repellents, and systematic guarding. Incidence of raiding and crop loss decreased in almost all cases, often by shifting raiding to unprotected fields or adjacent farms. Farmers identified benefits and shortcomings for each deterrent, and considered most to be effective and valuable. Insights from the research directly inform intervention strategies to address crop-raiding issues and extend options to mitigate human–wildlife conflict.     

Ecological function losses caused by monotonous land use induce crop raiding by wildlife on the island of Yakushima,southern Japan

Mass production is a logical outcome of price competition in a capitalist economy. It has resulted in the need for large-scale logging and planting of commercial crops. However, such monotonous land use, or monoculture, has damaged various ecological functions of forests and eroded the beneficial public service provided by forests. In Japan, the most widespread monotonous land use is associated with coniferous plantations, the expansion of which was encouraged by Forest Agency policies from 1958 that were aimed at increasing wood production. By 1986, half of all forested lands had been transformed into single-species conifer plantations. These policies may damage the ecological functions of forests: to provide stable habitats for forest wildlife. In particular, food supplies for wildlife have fluctuated greatly after several decades of logging. Some species have therefore changed their ecology and begun to explore novel environments proactively in order to adapt to such extreme fluctuations. Such species have started to use farmlands that neighbor the plantations. In this sense, crop raiding by wildlife can be regarded as a negative result of monotonous land use due to the loss of ecological functions. Therefore, habitat management to rehabilitate ecological functions and to reorganize the landscape will be required in order to resolve the problem of crop raiding by wildlife. This study examines crop raiding by Japanese deer (Cervus nippon) and monkeys (Macaca fuscata) on the island of Yakushima, which typifies crop-raiding situations in Japan.     

Multi-annual changes in the parasite communities of rabbitfish Siganus rivulatus (Siganidae) in the Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea

The parasite communities of the rabbitfish, Siganus rivulatus, were used to track multi-annual changes in the northern Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea, in an environment subjected to ongoing anthropogenic impact. Parasitological data from these fish were collected from 1998 to 2000, with spring and fall samplings at three locations: at a coral reef (OBS), at a sandy beach area (NB) and at a mariculture cage farm (FF). These data were compared with data from 1995–1997 as well as data collected during 1981–1985 at the coral reef sampling site. The data analyses indicate that the ratio between heteroxenous and monoxenous parasite species declined significantly at all sites between 1995–1997 and 1998–2000. During the same period, the species richness of monoxenous parasites increased significantly at all sites. The species richness of heteroxenous parasites decreased significantly at the coral reef site, but remained steady at the other two sites. This coincided with a significant increase in the prevalence of monogeneans at the OBS and FF sites and a significant decrease in the prevalence of digeneans at the FF and NB sites. The decline in the abundance of the latter, specifically of Opisthogonoporoides sp. and Gyliauchen sp., was even more significant when compared with the 1981–1985 data. The prevalence of other gut helminths, namely the digenean Hexangium sigani and the nematodes Cucullanus sigani and Procamallanus elatensis, however, showed a significant increase over the same period. Analysis of the species richness and diversity indices of the parasite communities did not reveal conspicuous differences. These, however, did become apparent when heteroxenous and monoxenous members of particular taxa were analyzed separately. Therefore, when using parasite assemblages to detect ecological changes, it is essential to analyze not only at the community level, but also to consider separate components of particular parasitic groups. Communicated by H. von Westernhagen, A. Diamant     

生态旅游对川金丝猴肠道寄生虫的影响

非人灵长类接触人类或受人类活动干扰导致肠道寄生虫与宿主关系失衡,这种影响造成肠道寄生虫感染,进而增加肠道寄生虫种类和荷虫量。为检验生态旅游对川金丝猴（Rhinopithecus roxellana）肠道寄生虫的种类和承载是否有影响,本研究收集神农架国家级自然保护区川金丝猴投食群和野生群粪便样品,采用福尔马林乙酸乙酯沉淀法,共发现5种肠道寄生虫：阿米巴原虫（Amoeba）,鞭虫属（Trichuris sp.）,蛔虫（Ascaris lumbricoides）,蛲虫（Enterobius vermicularis）,钩虫（Hookworms）。结果显示,投食群的阿米巴和蛲虫的荷虫量高于野生群;蛔虫在投食群和野生群均有发现,但两者之间无显著性差异;鞭虫和钩虫只在投食群中发现。投食群部分肠道寄生虫具有高荷虫量和新增的两个种类是由于非人灵长类直接或间接与人类接触（生态旅游等）所导致的。     

Regional differences in the infection of wild Japanese macaques by gastrointestinal helminth parasites

A coprological survey of gastrointestinal parasites in wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata), from 14 natural habitats was done. Ova of five nematode species (Trichuris trichiura, Strongyloides fuelleborni, Streptopharagus pigmentatus, Oesophagostomum aculeatum, andGongylonema species) and a worm of the cestode species,Bertiella studieri, were detected. Some differences found in rates of infection by sex were observed in the 14 areas. Differences based on age were found in only troops in which the infection rates ofStrongyloides fuelleborni, Streptopharagus pigmentatus, andTrichuris trichiura were higher in the juvenile monkeys. The number of parasite species was related to the geographical and climatic conditions of the habitat of the troop: troops living in areas cold in winter were infected by fewer parasite species than those in southern warmer areas.     

Nonlethal management of baboons on the urban edge of a large metropole

The transformation of natural land for agricultural and urban use has displaced baboons from large parts of their historical distribution. Abundant resources within transformed areas, however, continue to attract baboons back into these human-dominated areas resulting in chronic levels of conflict throughout much of Africa. In the city of Cape Town, chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) have been raiding human-derived foods for over 200 years. In the last 20 years, the management of this conflict has shifted from predominantly lethal to nonlethal methods. In this study, we assess the success of field rangers to deter baboons from urban areas and investigate whether such management affects the diet and activity patterns of baboons. We opportunistically sampled baboon behavior and movement when field rangers were temporarily absent from managed troops in 2008. We also compared the intensity of baboon management by comparing one troop on days when the field rangers aggressively herded the troop away from the urban edge versus passively monitored them in 2004/2005. Our results reveal that when field rangers were absent, the two troops spent 70% and 80% of their time within the urban edge compared to 3% and 19% when they were present. Both troops also consumed more human-derived foods when field rangers were absent. There was no significant change in the activity budget or daily distance traveled for either troop with and without field rangers. The intensity of herding did have an impact on baboon activity and high levels of herding significantly reduced time spent feeding and increased time spent traveling, socializing, and resting. Habitat use and dietary composition did not differ between high- and low-herding days. Our results suggest that field rangers are a successful nonlethal method for reducing spatial overlap between baboons and urban areas but that intensive, unsystematic herding of the troop does have measurable impacts on behavior and should be prevented.     

Helminth community structure of Scinax nasicus (Anura: Hylidae) from a South American subtropical area

The main goal of this study was to evaluate the relative influence of season, year of study, host body size, and host sex on abundance of helminth species parasitic in the frog Scinax nasicus. A total of 273 frogs was collected between December 2004 and November 2006 over all seasons in Corrientes City, Province of Corrientes, Argentina. Helminth community included 21 taxa, and was dominated particularly by larval trematodes. Infected frogs harboured a maximum of 7 species. Host sex and season played no significant effect in determining infracommunity parasite species abundance. Similarly, species richness was similar for both host sexes, and across time (year and season). However, occurrence of the parasites Opisthogonimus sp. 2 and Travtrema aff. stenocotyle greatly varied over time. Host body size was the main factor for determining infrapopulation structure of Centrorhynchus sp. Species richness was significantly and positively correlated with host body size. Strong associations were observed mainly between metacercariae of some species. The transmission strategies of parasites suggest that this hylid acquires infections by ingestion of infective larvae and through direct contact with larval parasites from aquatic and terrestrial habitats.     

Raiding Activity of an Obligate (Polyergus breviceps) and Two Facultative (Formica puberula and F. gynocrates) Slave-Making Ants

Slave-making ants are social parasites that exploit the labor of workers from their host species by keeping them captive in the slave-maker nest. Slave-makers vary in their degree of specialization, ranging from obligate slave-makers that cannot survive without captives, to facultative slave-makers, which are often found living independently. Our study system included one obligate slave-maker, Polyergus breviceps, two facultative slave-makers, Formica puberula and F. gynocrates, and two hosts, F. occulta and F. sp. cf. argentea. We observed all raids conducted during two raiding seasons by seven P. breviceps colonies, two F. puberula colonies, and two F. gynocrates colonies. We report on raiding frequency, average raid distances, and then compare the probability of being raided multiple times in a single raiding season for the two host species. We also report on the spatial distribution of slave raids, which suggests that slave-makers avoid raiding in areas used by other slave-maker colonies. This is the first report of raiding activity for P. breviceps in this location, and the first report of raiding activity of any kind for F. puberula and F. gynocrates.     

Troop Size,Habitat Use,and Diet of Chacma Baboons (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Papio hamadryas ursinus</Emphasis>) in Commercial Pine Plantations: Implications for Management

Primates living outside protected areas frequently come into conflict with humans. While the focus of most research has been on the costs and consequences of crop raiding in relation to subsistence agriculture, large-scale commercial agriculture presents conservation challenges of its own. Baboons that occupy commercial pine plantations in southern Africa often damage young trees and, consequently, are shot in large numbers. We here aim to describe the population structure and resource and habitat use by baboons in such areas to provide the data needed for the formulation of viable long-term conservation policies. We used radio-collars to obtain estimates of home range size and habitat usage from 2 plantation troops and detailed observation of 1 of these to determine their diet. We compared these data, together with counts of troop size, to those from individuals in the same population that did not enter plantation. Although the mean troop size (42.2) of baboons in plantations was significantly higher than in adjoining natural areas (18.3), population density (2.8 individuals/km²) did not differ. Plantation baboons had a comparatively restricted diet in which a few indigenous species were disproportionately represented. Pine cambium was not an important dietary component and the baboons generally avoided compartments of pine trees to forage in small pockets of various natural plant communities. We argue that foresters should shift their policy from one of baboon extirpation to the long-term management of local populations, in the context of a proper and ongoing evaluation of the discounted cost of baboon damage.     

Parasite fauna and food contents of Notothenia c.f. angustata Hutton, 1875 (Pisces: Nototheniidae) from two intertidal localities of the Arauco Gulf,Chile

We studied the parasite fauna and food contents of 38 juvenile of Notothenia c.f. angustata specimens captured in the intertidal of Island Santa María and Maule, in the Arauco Gulf, Chile. Trophic habits of Notothenia c.f. angustata were not different between localities, which was mainly algae. A total 11 parasitic taxa among were found with the digenean Lecitasther macrocotyle, cestode larvae Tetraphyllidea and Diphyllidea and nematode Ascarophis sp. being the dominant taxa. The abundance of parasites was similar in the two localities, although the infracommunity richness was higher in fish from Maule. The most abundant parasite was L. macrocotyle in hosts from Isla Santa María, while those from Maule they were the Diphyllidea larvae and nematodes Ascarophis sp. The body length of the hosts was not a good predictor of the variations in abundance and richness at infracommunities, probably because of the early ontogenetic stage of fishes.     

Community composition, correlations among taxa, prevalence, and richness in gastrointestinal parasites of baboons in Senegal, West Africa

Studies of gastrointestinal parasite prevalence in Papio have either focused on a single troop or compared prevalence among troops that share migrants but differ in degree of human contact. Little is known about the extent of variation in prevalence where obvious factors that may drive prevalence (e.g., human contact) are absent, so it is difficult to interpret variation when these factors are present. To address this issue, we studied troops of Guinea baboons (Papio papio) that had almost no contact with humans or domesticated species of plants or animals. We tested the null hypotheses that community composition, richness, and prevalence would be similar between groups in two comparisons: (1) between troops in the same locality with no known differences in drivers of prevalence, and (2) between samples at the same location taken more than 20 years apart. We collected anonymous fecal samples from two troops of baboons living in a wilderness site, Mt. Assirik, in the Niokolo-Koba National Park, Republic of Senegal, West Africa. We collected samples from two valleys and analyzed prevalence and richness with respect to place and time. Both prevalence and richness were similar in the two valleys, but significant changes emerged in both prevalence and community composition compared with the previous survey in 1978–1979. We also found that the nematode Enterobius and a fluke, Watsonius, co-occurred within hosts more frequently than expected. This phenomenon has not been previously noted in the literature, and it suggests common environmental drivers or facilitation among these parasites.     

Patterns of infection by intestinal parasites in sympatric howler monkey (Alouatta palliata) and spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi) populations in a tropical dry forest in Costa Rica

In primate populations, endoparasite species richness and prevalence are associated with host traits such as reproductive and social status, age, sex, host population density, and environmental factors such as humidity. We analyzed the species richness and prevalence of intestinal parasites in two sympatric primate populations, one of Alouatta palliata and one of Ateles geoffroyi, found in a tropical dry forest in Costa Rica. We identified three species of intestinal parasites (Controrchis sp., Trypanoxyuris sp., and Strongyloides sp.) in these two primate species. We did not find any differences in species richness between the primate species. However, the prevalences of Controrchis sp. and Trypanoxyuris sp. were higher in Alouatta palliata. Similarly, males and lactating females of Alouatta palliata showed higher Controrchis sp. prevalences. We did not observe any differences in parasite richness and prevalence between seasons. Infectious diseases in endangered primate populations must be considered in conservation strategies, especially when defining protected areas.     

Yield‐biodiversity trade‐off in patchy fields of Miscanthus × giganteus

Increasing crop productivity to meet rising demands for food and energy, but doing so in an environmentally sustainable manner, is one of the greatest challenges for agriculture to date. In Ireland, Miscanthus × giganteus has the potential to become a major feedstock for bioenergy production, but the economic feasibility of its cultivation depends on high yields. Miscanthus fields can have a large number of gaps in crop cover, adversely impacting yield and hence economic viability. Predominantly positive effects of Miscanthus on biodiversity reported from previous research might be attributable to high crop patchiness, particularly during the establishment phase. The aim of this research was to assess crop patchiness on a field scale and to analyse the relationship between Miscanthus yield and species richness and abundance of selected taxa of farmland wildlife. For 14 Miscanthus fields at the end of their establishment phase (4–5 years after planting), which had been planted either on improved grassland (MG) or tilled arable land (MT), we determined patchiness of the crop cover, percentage light penetration (LP) to the lower canopy, Miscanthus shoot density and height, vascular plants and epigeic arthropods. Plant species richness and noncrop vegetation cover in Miscanthus fields increased with increasing patchiness, due to higher levels of LP to the lower canopy. The species richness of ground beetles and the activity density of spiders followed the increase in vegetation cover. Plant species richness and activity density of spiders on both MT and MG fields, as well as vegetation cover and activity density of ground beetles on MG fields, were negatively associated with Miscanthus yield. In conclusion, positive effects of Miscanthus on biodiversity can diminish with increasing productivity. This matter needs to be considered when assessing the relative ecological impacts of developing biomass crops in comparison with other land use.     

Better to Live with Allogenerics Than to Live Alone? The Case of Single Male Cercopithecus pogonias in Troops of Colobus satanas

We report the integration of single male crowned guenons (Cercopithecus pogonias) into troops of black colobus (Colobus satanas). We observed one male Cercopithecus pogonias in three troops of Colobus satanas on 30% of observation days (n = 231). Activities of single males guenons did not differ significantly from those of the colobus with which they associated. Moreover, both species performed simultaneously the same activities more often than expected by chance. Interspecific grooming occurred on several occasions. Furthermore, single male guenons spent as much in time social activities when part of a colobus troop, as they typically do when part of a conspecific group. Unlike solitary male crowned guenons, which are silent, a male that is integrated into a troop of colobus is vocal and emits social alarm calls to which colobus monkeys respond. During the single file movements of colobus troops, single male crowned guenons were integrated in the core of the troop and used the same branches at the same height with the colobus. Thus, the life of a single male crowned guenon with black colobus was social. We suggest that the main benefits that he gained is the possibility to live in a social context. Social interactions could be the key element to explain why single males Cercopithecus pogonias join troops of monkeys so different from their natal groups.     

Using Parasitic Load to Measure the Effect of Anthropogenic Disturbance on Vervet Monkeys

Vervet monkeys, Chlorocebus pygerythrus, thrive in urban areas of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and present a suitable model to assess parasitic load as a measure of anthropogenic disturbance, such as urbanization. We collected vervet monkey faecal samples from four study sites representing a gradient of land use and urbanization. We assessed faecal parasites using the faecal flotation method calculating eggs per gram and parasite richness. Overall, the more urban vervet monkey populations had a significantly higher parasite richness and abundance. Our study shows the applicability of using parasite load to measure the effect of urbanization on wildlife.     

Parasites and prey of the nursehound shark Scyliorhinus stellaris (Linnaeus, 1758): Insights into hidden trophic web interactions in the Mediterranean Sea

The metazoan parasite community and the stomach contents of the nursehound shark Scyliorhinus stellaris from the Gulf of Naples (central Mediterranean Sea) were studied. The nursehound shark harboured a poor parasite community composed of a species of gill monogenean (Hexabothrium appendiculatum) and three intestinal cestode taxa (Acanthobothrium coronatum and two unidentified species of the genera Yamaguticestus and Scyphophyllidium), all represented by adult stages. Hosts were mostly parasitized by individuals of A. coronatum, which was the most abundant species and contributed to almost 80% of the total number of parasites found. Conversely, other trophically transmitted parasites (i.e., Yamaguticestus sp. and Scyphophyllidium sp.) showed low prevalence and abundance. The parasite infracommunity was poor, showing low values of species richness, total mean abundance, and diversity indices. Overall, 52 prey items belonging to 13 taxa were identified in the stomach contents. Cephalopods were the most important prey items (represented by nine taxa) and the most diverse and abundant group. In the multivariate space provided by a principal component of mixed data (PCAmix), nursehound sharks distributed along two main axes, related to individual traits (first axis) and stomach contents (including empty ones, second axis). A logistic regression based on the first two axes of the PCAmix showed a significant influence of host individual traits and, to a lesser extent, of stomach contents, regarding the probability of being infected by A. coronatum. Alongside specific traits already associated with parasites transmission, our results highlight the importance of cephalopods in transferring cestode infections through trophic web interactions in the top-predator nursehound shark.