On farm plant reintroduction: A decision framework for plant conservation translocation in EU agro-ecosystems

The increased demand of food produced through sustainable agriculture has resulted in localised amelioration of intensive management imposed by agroecosystems. However, these newly available niches are often isolated and plant species may not be able to recolonise fragmented agroecosystems from where they have been extirpated. Plant reintroduction can overcome dispersal limitation in agroecosystems but may also generate conflicts that jeopardise conservation efforts. Conflicts arise when reintroductions are perceived to place constraints on the management and productivity of agroecosystems: the translocated plants may require space sharing with crops, may have negative effects on crop yields, and come with the expectation that farmers must modify their farming practices and accommodate legal obligations deriving from protected species status. Benefits include economic incentives that pay farmers through CAP, the conservation of nature, ecosystem services, an effective marketing strategy and increased aesthetic value that might generate ecotourism.We discuss the practical implications of the abovementioned issues by reference to two cases of European species in which different approaches to reintroduction resulted in opposite outcomes (i.e., consensus vs. opposition). Coexistence of threatened plants and crops is possible if farmers and local stakeholders are involved in a conservation project from an early stage and if farmers conservation efforts turn into benefits for their income. Based on these considerations, we propose a strategic framework to promote reintroduction of threatened plants in agroecosystems (land sharing) and policy advancement aimed at recognising the role of farmers in maintaining biodiversity on their lands.     

Biological nitrogen fixation in resource-poor agriculture in South Africa

Farm lands of resource-poor communities in South Africa are depleted of nutrients due to continuous mono-cropping, limited use of fertilisers, and sometimes leaching caused by high rainfall. Despite the well-known advantages of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) in cropping systems, less than 10% of the grain crops planted annually in these areas are legumes. Using a participatory research and development approach, resource-poor farmers were introduced to conservation agriculture (CA) practices, including BNF, that promoted zero (or reduced) tillage, increased retention of soil cover, as well as crop diversification. Because crop rotation and intercropping of legumes with cereals are known to contribute to soil fertility while enhancing food security, resource-poor farmers from various Provinces in South Africa were trained on the benefits of legume culture for eight years. As a result, these resource-poor farmers did not only get training in inoculation techniques, but were also supplied with inoculants for use on their farms. Data collected from Farmers Demonstration Trials at Belvedere, Dumbarton and Lusikisiki, showed that the grain and fodder yield of maize planted after legumes, and maize intercropped with legumes, were comparable to those of maize receiving high N fertilizer dose (i.e. 54 kg N at planting and 54 kg N as top-dressing). The same data further showed thatRhizobium inoculation, when combined with application of low levels of P and K, significantly increased crop yields within farmers’ trial plots. BNF therefore offers a great opportunity for resource-poor farmers in South Africa to increase their crop yields and thus improve the quality of their livelihoods through the adoption of affordable and sustainable biological technologies that enhance soil fertility.     

Review: Feed demand landscape and implications of food-not feed strategy for food security and climate change

The food-feed competition is one of the complex challenges, and so are the ongoing climate change, land degradation and water shortage for realizing sustainable food production systems. By 2050 the global demand for animal products is projected to increase by 60% to 70%, and developing countries will have a lion’s share in this increase. Currently, ~800 million tonnes of cereals (one-third of total cereal production) are used in animal feed and by 2050 it is projected to be over 1.1 billion tonnes. Most of the increase in feed demand will be in developing countries, which already face many food security challenges. Additional feed required for the projected increased demand of animal products, if met through food grains, will further exacerbate the food insecurity in these countries. Furthermore, globally, the production, processing and transport of feed account for 45% of the greenhouse gas emissions from the livestock sector. This paper presents approaches for addressing these challenges in quest for making livestock sector more sustainable. The use of novel human-inedible feed resources such as insect meals, leaf meals, protein isolates, single cell protein produced using waste streams, protein hydrolysates, spineless cactus, algae, co-products of the biofuel industry, food wastes among others, has enormous prospects. Efficient use of grasslands also offers possibilities for increasing carbon sequestration, land reclamation and livestock productivity. Opportunities also exist for decreasing feed wastages by simple and well proven practices such as use of appropriate troughs, increase in efficiency of harvesting crop residues and their conversion to complete feeds especially in the form of densified feed blocks or pellets, feeding as per the nutrient requirements, among others. Available evidence have been presented to substantiate arguments that: (a) for successful and sustained adoption of a feed technology, participation of the private sector and a sound business plan are required, (b) for sustainability of the livestock production systems, it is also important to consider the consumption of animal products and a case has been presented to assess future needs of animal source foods based on their requirements for healthy living, (c) for dairy animals, calculation of Emission Intensity based on the lifetime lactation rather than one lactation may also be considered and (d) for assessment of the efficiency of livestock production systems a holistic approach is required that takes into consideration social dimensions and net human-edible protein output from the system in addition to carbon and water footprints.     

Farmers' perspectives for the development of a bioenergy industry in Ireland

A survey of Irish farmers was conducted to identify farmers’ opinions on energy crop production and to characterize potential adopters of energy crop cultivation in Ireland. One hundred and seventy‐two surveys were completed from 25 counties in Ireland. Miscanthus (48%) and grass (30%) were the preferred crops for adoption of energy crop production. Potential adopters described themselves as having a significantly greater level of knowledge of energy crop production compared with other respondents. The results indicate that lack of interest in adopting energy crop production may be due to lack of knowledge regarding the economic benefits of adoption and the variety of energy crops available for cultivation in Ireland. The establishment of long‐term contracts and government schemes were identified as important requirements for the development of bioenergy crop production in Ireland. Energy crop adoption was not limited to farmers undertaking specific farm enterprises. Farmers were motivated to adopt energy crop production for both economic and environmental benefits. These results are the first to provide valuable information on the perspectives of potential adopters of bioenergy crop production in Ireland for the promotion and implementation of a national bioenergy industry. Policy requirements and outreach strategies to encourage adoption of energy crops by agricultural producers are suggested.     

Maintaining or Abandoning African Rice: Lessons for Understanding Processes of Seed Innovation

Rice breeding and crop research predominantly emphasize adaptation to ecological conditions. Based on qualitative and quantitative research conducted between 2000 and 2012 we show how ecological factors, combined with socioeconomic variables, cultural norms and values, shape the use and development of local technologies related to the cultivation of African rice (Oryza glaberrima Steud.) in seven West African countries (Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, Sierra Leone, The Gambia and Togo). In this region the role of African rice is diverse across ethnic groups. Findings suggest that farmers, through various pathways, are active in the development of promising new varieties based on genetic resources of Asian rice, African rice, or both, as well as in the adoption of modern varieties. These findings require further research into interactions among ecological, genetic, socioeconomic and cultural factors within farmers?? innovation systems and recognition of emergent knowledge and technologies resulting from such interactions.     

Attitudes of European farmers towards GM crop adoption

This article analyses European Union (EU) farmers' attitudes towards adoption of genetically modified crops by identifying and classifying groups of farmers. Cluster analysis provided two groups of farmers allowing us to classify farmers into potential adopters or rejecters of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops. Results showed that economic issues such as the guarantee of a higher income and the reduction of weed control costs are the most encouraging reasons for potential adopters and rejecters of GMHT crops. This article also examines how putting in place measures to ensure coexistence between GM and non-GM crops may influence farmers' attitudes towards GMHT crop adoption. Results show that the implementation of a coexistence policy would have a negative impact on farmers' attitudes on adoption and consequently may hamper GMHT adoption in the EU.     

Improvements in Life Cycle Energy Efficiency and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Corn-Ethanol

Corn-ethanol production is expanding rapidly with the adoption of improved technologies to increase energy efficiency and profitability in crop production, ethanol conversion, and coproduct use. Life cycle assessment can evaluate the impact of these changes on environmental performance metrics. To this end, we analyzed the life cycles of corn-ethanol systems accounting for the majority of U.S. capacity to estimate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and energy efficiencies on the basis of updated values for crop management and yields, biorefinery operation, and coproduct utilization. Direct-effect GHG emissions were estimated to be equivalent to a 48% to 59% reduction compared to gasoline, a twofold to threefold greater reduction than reported in previous studies. Ethanol-to-petroleum output/input ratios ranged from 10:1 to 13:1 but could be increased to 19:1 if farmers adopted high-yield progressive crop and soil management practices. An advanced closed-loop biorefinery with anaerobic digestion reduced GHG emissions by 67% and increased the net energy ratio to 2.2, from 1.5 to 1.8 for the most common systems. Such improved technologies have the potential to move corn-ethanol closer to the hypothetical performance of cellulosic biofuels. Likewise, the larger GHG reductions estimated in this study allow a greater buffer for inclusion of indirect-effect land-use change emissions while still meeting regulatory GHG reduction targets. These results suggest that corn-ethanol systems have substantially greater potential to mitigate GHG emissions and reduce dependence on imported petroleum for transportation fuels than reported previously.     

Feasibility of Water Efficiency and Reuse Technologies as Demand‐Side Strategies for Urban Water Management

Potable residential water efficiency and reuse technologies have seen increasing adoption in recent years and have been estimated to reduce demands by up to 50%. In this work, we used an engineering economic model to estimate the technically feasible levelized cost of water provided by seven above‐code water efficiency (i.e., beyond that required by building code) and reuse technologies within the Lower Colorado River Authority (LCRA) in central Texas. Unlike other demand‐side studies of residential water use, we model uncertainty and variation in technology adoption cost and performance; include reuse technologies; and differentiate between new construction and retrofits. We developed a conservation supply curve to compare the levelized cost of efficiency and reuse technologies with conventional supply‐side water management strategies. We estimate that efficiency and reuse in the residential sector can meet 85% of 50‐year projected needs (the difference between projected demand and estimated supplies) for the LCRA service area. We also estimate lower levelized costs for immediate retrofits of most technologies, promoting incentives for early technology adoption. However, efficiency and reuse technology performance demonstrates considerable uncertainty and variability. The fraction of demands met by demand‐side strategies range from around 60% to 100%. Occupancy drives much of the variability because it significantly affects demand. These results promote designing incentives for adoption of water efficiency and reuse technologies based upon use. We find that water‐efficient showerheads and bathroom faucet aerators perform well over a variety of assumptions, indicating that these technologies should be a priority for municipalities seeking water demand reductions.     

Theory and Practice of the Cropping Systems Approach to Reducing Nematode Problems in the Tropics

Plant-parasitic nematodes are major constraints to the productivity of tropical farming operations. Intensive land use and climatic conditions favorable to nematode development contribute to increased crop losses due to these pests. Many farmers in developing tropical countries have limited resources and management options. Cropping systems research is a relatively low-cost, low-input method of optimizing existing agricultural practices with respect to limiting losses due to plant-parasitic nematodes. Specific tropical farming practices are discussed along with problems they pose for research in quantitative hematology. Comprehensive, systematic research methods for delineating and using nematode-host relationships are described, and new ways of dealing with complex multicropping systems are suggested.     

Agricultural use of water

Irrigation for agricultural purposes is one of the essential claims on available water resources. Those resources have not been adequately utilized in many countries for a variety of reasons. Where finance has been allocated to irrigation schemes, the schemes have tended to be large-scale, and the performance often disappointing. Alternatively, small-scale irrigation schemes, while receiving less support and encouragement, can often be more effective. For both large-scale and small-scale irrigation schemes, the responses of individual farmers and village communities are critical factors. More technologies need to be developed that are adapted to local needs, resources and aspirations within the context of current socio-economic practices. Obviously, the wider the range of technologies available, the more likely it will be that the technology most appropriate to existing conditions will be identified and used.     

Agricultural input traits: past, present and future

For thousands of years farm practices have evolved as new innovations have become available. Farmers want more value per unit of land, clean fields, and high yields with less input. Plants with incorporated pest resistance and herbicide resistance help meet these needs through increased yield, reduced chemical use, and reduced soil impacts. Although researchers have developed useful traits for a wide variety of plant species, only a few traits are available commercially; however, global adoption of these traits has and continues to increase rapidly. Availability of future traits will be dependent on input not only from researchers, but from governments, interest groups, processors, distributors and ultimately consumers, in addition to the farmers that drive demand for transgenic seed.     

Modelling interactions between farmer practices and fattening pig performances with an individual-based model

European pig production continues to encounter economic and environmental challenges. To address these issues, methods have been developed to assess performances of pig production systems. Recent studies indicate that considering variability in performances among pigs improves the accuracy and reliability of results compared with modelling an average animal. Our objective was to develop a pig fattening unit model able to (i) simulate individual pig performances, including their variability in interaction with farmers’ practices and management, and (ii) assess their effects on technical, economic and environmental performances. Farmer practices included in the model were chosen from a typology generated from on-farm surveys focused on batch management, pig allocation to pens, pig feeding practices, practices of shipping to the slaughterhouse, and management of the remaining pigs. Pigs are represented using an individual-based model adapted from the InraPorc® model. To illustrate the model’s abilities, four scenarios were simulated that combine two feed rationing plans (ad libitum, restricted to 2.5 kg/day) and two feed sequence plans (two-phase, 10-phase). Analysis of variance was performed on the simulated technical, economic and environmental indicators (calculated via Life Cycle Assessment). The feed rationing plan and feed sequence plan significantly affected all indicators except for the premium per pig, for which the feed sequence plan did not have a significant effect. The ‘restricted 10-phase’ scenario maximised gross margin of the fattening unit (14.2 €/pig) and minimised environmental impacts per kg of pig produced. In contrast, the ‘ad libitum two-phase’ scenario generated the lowest margin (8.20 €/pig) and the highest environmental impacts. The model appears to be a promising tool to assess effects of farmers’ practices, pig characteristics and farm infrastructure on technical, economic and environmental performances of the fattening unit, and to investigate the potential of improvement. However, further work is needed, based on virtual experiments, in order to evaluate the effects of a larger diversity of practices.     

Participatory Research Approaches and Social Dynamics that Influence Agricultural Practices to Improve Child Nutrition in Malawi

The Soils, Food and Healthy Communities project in Malawi uses an interdisciplinary participatory approach to improving child nutrition with resource-poor farmers. The overall research question is: Can legume systems improve soil fertility, food security, and child nutrition? Over 2000 farmers are now experimenting with legume systems in the region. While this article examines the social issues that mitigate the potential success of legume options tested by the farmers, it does not aim at discussing extensively the complex web of interactions between soil fertility, food security, and nutritional status of children. Instead, its focus is on the research process, and more specifically on the social dimensions and participatory approaches, which influenced farmers’ adoption of organic matter technologies and legume options. The Farmer Research Team was critical in mobilizing community interest in changing agricultural practices to improve child health, but faced challenges in village politics and workload. The linkage with child nutrition was a major reason for increased adoption of legumes, and gender relations played a key role in the adoption. A deeper understanding of the limits of participatory approaches helped to develop innovations that may be replicated elsewhere, such as inclusion of grandmothers and a farmer apprenticeship program.     

Intensification through diversified resource use: The human ecology of a successful agricultural industry in Indonesian Borneo

The success of an agricultural industry in commercial duck egg production in the swamplands of South Kalimantan (Borneo) is examined through the utilization of a human ecology framework. Seasonality of resource availability and human population growth are identified as two major constraints to production faced by farmers. Population increases in the urban sectors of southeastern Borneo also present economic opportunities for farmers because of the growing demand for poultry products. Farmers have responded by developing an intensification strategy in egg production based on the use of diversified resources for duck feed. The long-term consequences of these and other innovations in duck farming are discussed; and diversity-stability theory is examined for its applicability to this case of agricultural development and for rural development theory and practice.The research that this paper is based upon was funded by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. BNS-8107626, Cathay Pacific Airlines, and The Graduate School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New jersey. In Indonesia, the research was sponsored by Universitas Lambung Mangkurat, Banjarmasin, and Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI), Jakarta.     

In situ conservation of crop genetic resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems

A strategy is suggested for in situ conservation of crop genetic resources whereby conservation efforts are linked to rural development projects in Third World countries. We describe development projects that emphasize preservation of traditional farming systems and succeed in sustaining production by relying on the maintenance of biological and genetic diversity in these systems. Basing agricultural development efforts on indigenous knowledge, technology, and social organization can provide important guidelines for the design of cropping systems that allow lowincome farmers to produce subsistence and cash crops without dependence on external inputs and seed supplies. By incorporating landraces and wild relatives of crops into these cropping systems, major achievements in the conservation of crop genetic resources can be obtained.     

Farmers’ practices,motivators and barriers for adoption of treatments of digital dermatitis in dairy farms

This study aimed to catalogue the digital dermatitis (DD) treatment practices used by French dairy farmers and to identify the motivators and barriers to the adoption of these treatments. A semi-structured survey was conducted involving 65 farmers in the main dairy production areas of France in the spring of 2009. The different treatment modalities implemented by farmers since the first diagnosis of DD in their herds were described. The reasons for adopting or abandoning these treatments were then investigated based on criteria of perceived effectiveness, labour, time, cost and toxicity related to their use. For individual treatments, farmers used 30 different products, applied through three different routes, for 1 to 21 consecutive days. For collective treatments, farmers used 31 products, applied through four different routes, at a rate ranging from once a day to once a year. Several products, especially antibiotics, were used without observing the manufacturer's instructions. The principal criteria for the adoption of a treatment was the perceived effectiveness in healing DD lesions and in limiting recurrence, while the principal barriers to adopting a treatment were the time and labour required for its application, followed by cost. Topical oxytetracycline treatments applied individually were used and adopted the most. They were perceived to be effective in healing DD lesions. However, these treatments were judged labour and time consuming, particularly when many animals had to be treated. Collective treatments combining formalin and copper sulphate often were applied topically using walk-though footbaths. These treatments often were judged to be insufficiently effective in healing DD lesions, difficult to implement, labour and time consuming and costly. The plethora of DD treatment practices and the misuse of some treatments could suggest that there is a lack of guidelines available to farmers on the optimal use and expected effectiveness of treatments. Clinical trials should be conducted to develop recommendations based on scientific rather than empirical data, and to identify the DD control measures which consume the least amount of time and labour.     

害虫生态调控的原理与方法

害虫生态调控的原理与方法戈峰（中国科学院动物研究所农业虫鼠害综合治理国家重点实验室,北京１０００８０）ＴｈｅＰｒｉｎｃｉｐｌｅｓａｎｄＭｅｔｈｏｄｓｏｆＥｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌＲｅｇｕｌａｔｉｏｎａｎｄＭａｎａｇｅｍｅｎｔｏｆＰｅｓｔｓ．ＧｅＦｅｎｇ（Ｉ...     

Molecular diagnostics for plant nematodes

Plant parasitic nematodes are a source of considerable economic loss to arable farmers. However, the cost of nematode control is also escalating, both in financial and environmental terms. Nevertheless, there are alternative methods of control in current use. As Tom Powers emphasizes in this article, to be effective, crop rotation and the use of resistant strains of host plant need to be accompanied by sensitive methods for parasite strain identification. Morphologically, there is little by which to separate nematode pothotypes and consequently technologies are being introduced to tackle these problems at the level of their genes.     

Drivers leading to higher food prices: biofuels are not the main factor

Since 2007, the overall rise in food prices in the USA was twice that of the overall inflation rate, led by inflation for poultry and dairy products in particular. Prominent studies have indicated that the main drivers associated with the rise in food prices in the past 3 yr are the increased energy costs (and the trickle-down impact on farm input costs) and the devaluation of the US dollar. However, currently, the impact of crude oil as one of the primary drivers in food prices has waned significantly, as crude oil prices have fallen dramatically since late 2008. The data reviewed here debunk the popular myth that food producers, particularly farmers growing corn or soybean for biofuel feedstocks, are making huge profits with high commodity prices. Producers continue to face extraordinary risks in their farming operations, and profit margins have narrowed considerably because of the high input prices driven by high energy costs. One of the primary solutions to the food price inflation is to increase the supply of commodity crops in a responsible way that is both respectful and sustainable regarding economic, social, and environmental aspects. At the center of this solution is implementing and developing new technologies to increase crop yields and nutritional values without increasing the amount of fossil-based inputs used in agriculture. Conventional breeding, molecular breeding, genomics, and biotechnology are pivotal technologies for increasing crop yields to meet these supply needs, combined with the impacts of other new technologies and best management practices in agricultural production.     

Digital technology adoption in livestock production with a special focus on ruminant farming

Digitalisation is an integral part of modern agriculture. Several digital technologies are available for different animal species and form the basis for precision livestock farming. However, there is a lack of clarity as to which digital technologies are currently used in agricultural practice. Thus, this work aims to present for the first time the status quo in Swiss livestock farming as an example of a highly developed, small-scale and diverse structured agriculture. In this context, the article focuses on the adoption of electronic sensors and measuring devices, electronic controls and electronic data-processing options and the usage of robotics in ruminant farming, namely, for dairy cattle, dairy goats, suckler cows, beef cattle and meat-sheep. Furthermore, the use of electronic ear tags for pigs and the smartphone usage for barn monitoring on poultry farms was assessed. To better understand the adoption process, farm and farmer’s characteristics associated with the adoption of (1) implemented and (2) new digital technologies in ruminant farming were assessed using regression analyses, which is classified at a 10% adoption hurdle. The results showed clear differences in the adoption rates between different agricultural enterprises, with both types of digital technologies tending to be used the most in dairy farming. Easy-to-use sensors and measuring devices such as those integrated in the milking parlour were more widespread than data processing technologies such as those used for disease detection. The husbandry system further determined the use of digital technologies, with the result that farmers with tie stall barns were less likely to use digital technologies than farmers with loose housing systems. Additional studies of farmers’ determinants and prospects of implementation can help identify barriers in the adoption of digital technologies.