Multipoint linkage analysis.

A formula is given for the advantage of n-point sampling, which approaches infinity with n. However, 2-point and 3-point analyses extract nearly all the information in such samples and at the same time communicate this information as lods and chi 2, which can be combined with other data by simple addition without reevaluation of the likelihood. When null interference is assumed, map distances and multiple recombination frequencies are inflated, and there is substantial loss of efficiency and of support for the correct order.     

Multipoint Genetic Mapping with Trisomy Data

Trisomy is the most common genetic abnormality in humans and is the leading cause of mental retardation. Although molecular studies that use a large number of highly polymorphic markers have been undertaken to understand the recombination patterns for chromosome abnormalities, there is a lack of multilocus approaches to incorporating crossover interference in the analysis of human trisomy data. In the present article, we develop two statistical methods that simultaneously use all genetic information in trisomy data. The first approach relies on a general relationship between multilocus trisomy probabilities and multilocus ordered-tetrad probabilities. Under the assumption that no more than one chiasma exists in each marker interval, we describe how to use the expectation-maximization algorithm to examine the probability distribution of the recombination events underlying meioses that lead to trisomy. One limitation of the first approach is that the amount of computation increases exponentially with the number of markers. The second approach models the crossover process as a chi(2) model. We describe how to use hidden Markov models to evaluate multilocus trisomy probabilities. Our methods are applicable when both parents are available or when only the nondisjoining parent is available. For both methods, genetic distances among a set of markers can be estimated and the pattern of overall chiasma distribution can be inspected for differences in recombination between meioses exhibiting trisomy and normal meioses. We illustrate the proposed approaches through their application to a set of trisomy 21 data.     

Multipoint linkage-disequilibrium mapping with haplotype-block structure

The HapMap Project is providing a great deal of new information on high-resolution haplotype structure in various human populations. This information has the potential to greatly increase the power of association mapping for a fixed amount of genotyping. A number of methods have been proposed for the identification of haplotype blocks, common haplotypes, and tagging single-nucleotide polymorphisms. Here, we build on this work by developing novel methods for case-control multipoint linkage-disequilibrium (LD) mapping that gain power and speed by making explicit use of the inferred block structure. Specifically, we developed a virtual-variant approach that uses the haplotype-block information to greatly increase power for detection of untyped common variants associated with a trait. Because full multipoint LD mapping can be slow, we exploited the haplotype-block information to develop a fast single-block multipoint mapping method. Our methods are appropriate for genotype data and take into account the uncertainty in phase. We describe the methods in the context of case-parents trios, although they are also applicable to unrelated cases and controls. Our simulations indicate that the most important gains from taking into account the haplotype-block structure at the analysis stage of multipoint LD mapping come from (1) greatly increased power to detect association with untyped variants and (2) greatly improved localization of untyped variants associated with the trait. More-modest gains are obtained in improving power to detect association with a variant that is typed with a moderate amount of missing data. The methods are applied to a Crohn disease data set.     

Multipoint genetic mapping with uniparental disomy data

Uniparental disomy (UPD) refers to the presence of two copies of a chromosome from one parent and none from the other parent. In genetic studies of UPDs, many genetic markers are usually used to identify the stage of nondisjunction that leads to UPD and to uncover the associated unusual patterns of recombinations. However, genetic information in such data has not been fully utilized because of the limitations of the existing statistical methods for UPD data. In the present article, we develop a multilocus statistical approach that has the advantages of being able to simultaneously consider all genetic markers for all individuals in the same analysis and to allow general models for the crossover process to incorporate crossover interference. In particular, for a general crossover-process model that assumes only that there exists in each interval at most one crossover, we describe how to use the expectation-maximization algorithm to examine the probability distribution of the recombination events underlying meioses leading to UPD. We can also use this flexible approach to create genetic maps based on UPD data and to inspect recombination differences between meioses exhibiting UPD and normal meioses. The proposed method has been implemented in a computer program, and we illustrate the proposed approach through its application to a set of UPD15 data.     

Multipoint linkage analysis in X-linked Alport syndrome

Summary In order to localize the gene for the X-linked form of Alport syndrome (ATS) more precisely, we performed restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis with nine different X-chromosomal DNA markers in 107 members of twelve Danish families segregating for classic ATS or progressive hereditary nephritis without deafness. Two-point linkage analysis confirmed close linkage to the markers DXS17(S21) (Z _max = 4.44 at = 0.04), DXS94(pXG-12) (Z _max=8.07 at =0.04), and DXS101(cX52.5) (Z _max=6.04 at =0.00), and revealed close linkage to two other markers: DXS88(pG3-1) (Z _max =6.36 at =0.00) and DXS11(p22–33) (z _max=3.45 at =0.00). Multipoint linkage analysis has mapped the gene to the region between the markers DXS17 and DXS94, closely linked to DXS101. By taking into account the consensus map and results from other studies, the most probable order of the loci is: DXYS1(pDP34)-DXS3(p19-2)-DXS17-(ATS, DXS101)-DXS94-DXS11-DXS42(p43-15)-DXS51(52A). DXS88 was found to be located between DXS17 and DXS42, but the order in relation to the ATS locus and the other markers used in this study could not be determined.     

Multipoint mapping calculations for sperm-typing data.

This paper explains how multipoint likelihoods can be computed for sperm-typing data. Experimental errors such as multiple sperm per tube, inadequate amplification, and contamination by exogenous DNA are explicitly taken into account. By limiting the number of sperm theoretically possible per tube to a predetermined maximum and by assuming no chiasma interference, maximum-likelihood estimation can be carried out rapidly using the theory of hidden Markov chains.     

Multipoint linkage analysis in Menkes disease.

Linkage analyses were performed in 11 families with X-linked Menkes disease. In each family more than one affected patient had been diagnosed. Forty informative meioses were tested using 11 polymorphic DNA markers. From two-point linkage analyses high lod scores are seen for DXS146 (pTAK-8; maximal lod score 3.16 at recombination fraction [theta] = .0), for DXS1 (p-8; maximal lod score 3.44 at theta = .0), for PGK1 (maximal lod score 2.48 at theta = .0), and for DXS3 (p19-2; maximal lod score 2.90 at theta = .0). This indicates linkage to the pericentromeric region. Multilocus linkage analyses of the same data revealed a peak for the location score between DXS146(pTAK-8) and DXYS1X(pDP34). The most likely location is between DXS159 (cpX289) and DXYS1X(pDP34). Odds for this location relative to the second-best-supported region, between DXS146(pTAK-8) and DXS159 (cpX289), are better than 74:1. Visualization of individual recombinant X chromosomes in two of the Menkes families showed the Menkes locus to be situated between DXS159(cpX289) and DXS94(pXG-12). Combination of the present results with the reported absence of Menkes symptoms in male patients with deletions in Xq21 leads to the conclusion that the Menkes locus is proximal to DXSY1X(pDP34) and located in the region Xq12 to Xq13.3.     

植酸酶基因的多点突变及在毕赤酵母中的高效表达

根据毕赤酵母基因的密码子选择偏爱性,不改变其编码氨基酸序列,对来源于黑曲霉N25植酸酶phyA基因,进行了突变,构建了含有正确突变的酵母表达载体pPIC9k-phyAm-4,电击转化毕赤酵母,获得优化了密码子的重组酵母转化子。经PCR鉴定表明,植酸酶基因已整合到酵母基因组中; 表达产物的SDS-PAGE分析表明,酶蛋白分子大小为70.15KD。Southern blotting结果表明,phyA基因整合到酵母染色体DNA中;转化子酶活测定结果表明,经密码子优化的重组酵母PP-NPm-4-2酶活可达136900U/ml,比Arg没有优化的PP-NPm-8 (47600 Uoml-1)酶活高约2.8倍。     

Multipoint analysis of human quantitative genetic variation.

A unique method of partitioning human quantitative genetic variation into effects due to specific chromosomal regions is presented. This method is based on estimating the proportion of genetic material, R, shared identical by descent (IBD) by sibling pairs in a specified chromosomal region, on the basis of their marker genotypes at a set of marker loci spanning the region. The mean and variance of the distribution of R conditional on IBD status and recombination pattern between two marker loci are derived as a function of the distance between the two loci. The distribution of the estimates of R is exemplified using data on 22 loci on chromosome 7. A method of using the estimated R values and observed values of a quantitative trait in a set of sibships to estimate the proportion of total genetic variance explained by loci in the region of interest is presented. Monte Carlo simulation techniques are used to show that this method is more powerful than existing methods of quantitative linkage analysis based on sib pairs. It is also shown through simulation studies that the proposed method is sensitive to genetic variation arising from both a single locus of large effect as well as from several loosely linked loci of moderate phenotypic effect.     

Multipoint quantitative-trait linkage analysis in general pedigrees.

Multipoint linkage analysis of quantitative-trait loci (QTLs) has previously been restricted to sibships and small pedigrees. In this article, we show how variance-component linkage methods can be used in pedigrees of arbitrary size and complexity, and we develop a general framework for multipoint identity-by-descent (IBD) probability calculations. We extend the sib-pair multipoint mapping approach of Fulker et al. to general relative pairs. This multipoint IBD method uses the proportion of alleles shared identical by descent at genotyped loci to estimate IBD sharing at arbitrary points along a chromosome for each relative pair. We have derived correlations in IBD sharing as a function of chromosomal distance for relative pairs in general pedigrees and provide a simple framework whereby these correlations can be easily obtained for any relative pair related by a single line of descent or by multiple independent lines of descent. Once calculated, the multipoint relative-pair IBDs can be utilized in variance-component linkage analysis, which considers the likelihood of the entire pedigree jointly. Examples are given that use simulated data, demonstrating both the accuracy of QTL localization and the increase in power provided by multipoint analysis with 5-, 10-, and 20-cM marker maps. The general pedigree variance component and IBD estimation methods have been implemented in the SOLAR (Sequential Oligogenic Linkage Analysis Routines) computer package.     

Multipoint linkage detection in the presence of heterogeneity

Linkage heterogeneity is common for complex diseases. It is well known that loss of statistical power for detecting linkage will result if one assumes complete homogeneity in the presence of linkage heterogeneity. To this end, Smith (1963, Annals of Human Genetics 27, 175-182) proposed an admixture model to account for linkage heterogeneity. It is well known that for this model, the conventional chi-squared approximation to the likelihood ratio test for no linkage does not apply even when the sample size is large. By dealing with nuclear families and one marker at a time for genetic diseases with simple modes of inheritance, score-based test statistics (Liang and Rathouz, 1999, Biometrics 55, 65-74) and likelihood-ratio-based test statistics (Lemdani and Pons, 1995, Biometrics 51, 1033-1041) have been proposed which have a simple large-sample distribution under the null hypothesis of linkage. In this paper, we extend their work to more practical situations that include information from multiple markers and multi-generational pedigrees while allowing for a class of general genetic models. Three different approaches are proposed to eliminate the nuisance parameters in these test statistics. We show that all three approaches lead to the same asymptotic distribution under the null hypothesis of no linkage. Simulation results show that the proposed test statistics have adequate power to detect linkage and that the performances of these two classes of test statistics are quite comparable. We have applied the proposed method to a family study of asthma (Barnes et al., 1996), in which the score-based test shows evidence of linkage with p-value <0.0001 in the region of interest on chromosome 12. Additionally, we have implemented this score-based test within the frequently used computer package GENEHUNTER.     

Multipoint linkage analysis. A cautionary note.

Multipoint linkage analysis is commonly used to evaluate linkage of a disease to multiple markers in a small region. Multipoint analysis is particularly powerful when the IBD relations of family members at the trait locus are ambiguous. The increased power arises because, unlike single-marker analyses, multipoint analysis uses haplotype information from several markers to infer the IBD relations. We wish to temper this advantage with a cautionary note: multipoint analysis is sensitive to power loss due to misspecification of intermarker distances. Such misspecification is especially problematic when dealing with closely spaced markers. We present computer simulations comparing the power of single-point and multipoint analyses, both when IBD relations are ambiguous, and when the intermarker distances are misspecified. We conclude that when evaluating markers in a small region to confirm or refute previous findings, a situation in which p values of modest statistical significance are important, single marker analyses may provide more reliable measures of the strength of support for linkage than multipoint statistics.     

多点插管法制作上肢离体铸型标本

目的:研究显示上肢动脉铸型标本方法,为临床应用及教科研提供直观细致的局部循环标本。方法:截取新鲜成人尸上肢6例,从腋动脉、尺动脉及桡动脉分别向肢体两端进行多点灌注牙托粉、过氯乙烯等填充剂,然后进行腐蚀冲洗处理。结果:上肢动脉铸型标本外形美观,具有结构完整性和连续性,血管分支毗邻关系明确,疏密有度。结论:采用沿动脉管道多点插管灌注法是制作上肢动脉铸型标本较为有效的方法。     

Multipoint linkage-disequilibrium-mapping approach based on the case-parent trio design

In the present study we propose a multipoint approach, for the mapping of genes, that is based on the case-parent trio design. We first derive an expression for the expected preferential-allele-transmission statistics for transmission, from either parent to an affected child, for an arbitrary location within a chromosomal region demarcated by several genetic markers. No assumption about genetic mechanism is needed in this derivation, beyond the assumption that no more than one disease gene lies in the region framed by the markers. When one builds on this representation, the way in which one may maximize the genetic information from multiple markers becomes obvious. This proposed method differs from the popular transmission/disequilibrium test (TDT) approach for fine mapping, in the following ways: First, in contrast with the TDT approach, all markers contribute information, regardless of whether the parents are heterozygous at any one marker, and incomplete trio data can be utilized in our approach. Second, rather than performing the TDT at each marker separately, we propose a single test statistic that follows a chi(2) distribution with 1 df, under the null hypothesis of no linkage or linkage disequilibrium to the region. Third, in the presence of linkage evidence, we offer a means to estimate the location of the disease locus along with its sampling uncertainty. We illustrate the proposed method with data from a family study of asthma, conducted in Barbados.     

Multipoint identity-by-descent computations for single-point polymorphism and microsatellite maps

We used the LOKI software to generate multipoint identity-by-descent matrices for a microsatellite map (with 31 markers) and two single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) maps to examine information content across chromosome 7 in the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism dataset. Despite the lower information provided by a single SNP, SNP maps overall had higher and more uniform information content across the chromosome. The Affymetrix map (578 SNPs) and the Illumina map (271 SNPs) provided almost identical information. However, increased information has a computational cost: SNP maps require 100 times as many iterations as microsatellites to produce stable estimates.     

Multipoint mapping studies of six loci on chromosome 11

The six loci, beta-globin (HBBC), parathyroid hormone (PTH), oncogene c-Ha-ras-1 (HRAS1), insulin (INS), calcitonin (CAL) and catalase (CAT) loci, have been mapped to 11p in the order: CAT-CAL-PTH-HBBC-(HRAS1-INS). The purpose of the current study was to examine the linkage relationships, especially the multipoint relationships of these loci in detail. In the 18 families studied, a significant sex difference in recombination was found for the HBBC: HRAS1 linkage with more recombination in the male parent than the female parent (22 vs. 2%). The results of the multipoint analyses provided further evidence for the order CAT-CAL-PTH-HBBC-(HRAS1-INS); however, the order of the last two tightly linked loci is still not clear.     

Monitoring Blending of Pharmaceutical Powders with Multipoint NIR Spectroscopy

Blending of powders is a crucial step in the production of pharmaceutical solid dosage forms. The active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) is often a powder that is blended with other powders (excipients) in order to produce tablets. The blending efficiency is influenced by several external factors, such as the desired degree of homogeneity and the required blending time, which mainly depend on the properties of the blended materials and on the geometry of the blender. This experimental study investigates the mixing behavior of acetyl salicylic acid as an API and α-lactose monohydrate as an excipient for different filling orders and filling levels in a blender. A multiple near-infrared probe setup on a laboratory-scale blender is used to observe the powder composition quasi-simultaneously and in-line in up to six different positions of the blender. Partial least squares regression modeling was used for a quantitative analysis of the powder compositions in the different measurement positions. The end point for the investigated mixtures and measurement positions was determined via moving block standard deviation. Observing blending in different positions helped to detect good and poor mixing positions inside the blender that are affected by convective and diffusive mixing.