Racial fertility differences: The role of female employment and education in wanted and unwanted childbearing

Abstract

This paper employs data from a merged sample of the National Surveys of Family Growth to examine how female employment status conditions the relationship between education and wanted and unwanted births among African American and white women. A rationale is presented for why a minority group status hypothesis that posits lower fertility among more highly educated African American women as compared to similar white women might find support in the case of wanted births and among certain women, including earlier birth cohorts. Our results provide some evidence for these ideas as well as evidence for a social characteristics hypothesis that predicts convergence of childbearing with rising education. However, persistently higher levels of unwanted births among African American women of all educational levels suggest that the dynamics of racial fertility differences are more complex than either of the hypotheses imply.     

The Applicability of North American Growth Standards in Developing Countries

For the purpose of developmental evaluation of growing children and the nutritional assessment of individuals or populations, reliance on current North American standards for size, maturational timing, body fatness or osseous development may be unwise not only with respect to various African, Asiatic and Pacific populations but often with respect to adults and children in North America. In particular, the dental development and early ossification progress of most human groups are in advance of contemporary North American standards. The use of stature as a reference standard and the simple ratio of weight to height are both unsatisfactory measures except within clearly defined population samples. At the very least, age-size tables based on parental statures would be more realistic and useful for children of known parentage, whereas present-day averages that neglect parental size are most applicable to foundlings and illegitimate children.     

Urban Low-Income African American Men, HIV/AIDS, and Gender Identity

In a 1993 Human Organization article, Jerome Wright called for more research on African American male sexual behavior and the risk for HIV infection. The present article is a response to that call. Wright pointed out a well-known fact of HIV/AIDS prevention programs: such programs have not been very successful in reaching low-income African American males. The present article suggests that perhaps the key to better understanding sex-related health-risk behavior is to conduct more systematic research on gender identity, and the historical and sociocultural origins of such identities. I argue that if we are truly interested in developing effective HIV/AIDS programs targeting low-income African American males, then the sociocultural "meanings" that this population attaches to AIDS-related phenomena must be understood in the broader contexts of American constructs of masculinity, and in the real and perceived experiences of black men in America. Data from several ethnographic and qualitative research projects carried out among low-income African American male and female residents of Baltimore, other parts of Maryland, and Washington, D.C. are used in support of my primary arguments. [HIV/AIDS, African American Males, Gender Constructs, Sociocultural Meaning, Plantation America]     

Fertility intentions: are the undecided more like those who want more or want no more children?

In fertility surveys often women (and sometimes men) are asked their fertility desires, i.e. whether they want a/nother birth or not. Some respond that they are undecided. This study examines whether these persons are more like those who say they want more births or like those who say they want no more births. Data on married men and women in 29 Demographic and Health Surveys with sample sizes ranging from 300 to 3000 are used. A logistic regression equation is estimated within each country for those with known desires and then used to classify each person who was undecided. In all sub-Saharan African countries (n=20) and for both sexes, 50% or more of the undecided persons are classified as wanting more children (with one exception of wives in Kenya). By contrast in all five Latin American countries for both sexes less than 50% of the undecided were classified in the 'want more' group (with an exception of husbands in the Dominican Republic). Generally, the undecided tend to be classified the same as the majority among those in the survey with stated desires.     

Differential sexual dimorphism in bone diameters of subjects of European and African ancestry

The 1,589 low-income adult subjects of primarily African ancestry (American Negroes or “Blacks”) showed systematically less sexual dimorphism in total subperiosteal area (TA), medullary area (MA) and cortical area (CA) than did 4,379 low-income adult subjects of European derivation (“Whites”). These systematic findings have implications both to the sexing of skeletal remains from diverse populations and to an understanding of population divergences in bone remodeling.     

The Changing Timing of Births in Iran: An Explanation of the Rise and Fall in Fertility After the 1979 Islamic Revolution

Studies exploring the course of period fertility in Iran after the 1979 Islamic Revolution have not examined systematically the role played by changes in the timing of births. Using retrospective data from the 2000 Iran Demographic and Health Survey and frailty hazard models, this study finds that the rise in fertility in the early 1980s was due to faster transitions to the first birth among all social groups of women and to the fourth birth largely among illiterate and less educated women. In contrast, the rapid fertility decline after 1985 is attributed to slower transition to successive births, especially to the second, third, and fourth births. These findings point to the importance of education and contraceptive use (measured by length of previous birth interval) as key determinants of birth timing in Iran. Interaction between age at marriage and education positively influenced the timing of births, with stronger effects among highly educated women, suggesting that the onset of rapid fertility decline was likely driven by these highly educated women. Another interaction between the gender of prior children and education shows that birth timing, even among highly educated women, appears to have been influenced by son preference in Iran.     

Mammography screening and breast self-examination among minority women in public housing projects: the impact of physician recommendation.

This exploratory study examined the impact of physician recommendations and other factors on mammography screening and breast-self examination (BSE) among African American and Hispanic women in public housing communities. We surveyed a randomly selected sample of low-income households from three low-income communities (n = 291), which included both African Americans and Hispanic women. Data for this paper are reported only on women who were 40 years and older head of the households (n = 120 women, including 74 Hispanics and 46 African Americans), since they meet the age criterion for mammography screening. Our analyses indicated that only 46% of women obtained mammography in the previous 12 months, with no significant differences between the Hispanic and African American women in mammography rates. Physicians' recommendations were among the most significant and substantial predictors of obtaining a mammogram or performing BSE. Further, odds were also higher for those who had insurance coverage. In addition, our data also indicated that almost one out of four women, aged 40 and older participants in this study, claimed that their health care providers never told them they needed a mammogram or never told them that they should perform BSE, with no significant differences between Hispanic and African Americans. Our analyses points to an urgent need for intervention to inform and motivate the service providers in underserved communities to motivate breast cancer screening (BCS) among minority women. Additionally, our examination points to the need for urgent interventions targeting minority women, particularly women with no medical insurance for breast cancer screening.     

Pediatric paradox: heterogeneity in the birth cohort

Comparisons of birth-weight-specific infant mortality indicate that low-birth-weight African American infants have lower mortality than low-birth-weight European American infants despite higher infant mortality overall-the "pediatric paradox." One explanation is heterogeneity in birth weight. Analyses of African American and European American births suggest that birth cohorts consist of two heterogeneous subpopulations. One appears to account for normal births, whereas the other may consist of compromised births. Estimates of infant mortality indicate that the compromised subpopulation has higher overall mortality but lower birth-weight-specific mortality. We attribute lower birth-weight-specific infant mortality in the compromised subpopulation to higher rates of fetal loss. Compared to European American birth cohorts, African American birth cohorts have (1) higher birth-weight-specific mortality in the normal subpopulation, (2) larger compromised subpopulations, and (3) lower birth-weight-specific mortality in the compromised subpopulation. Consequently, the pediatric paradox is attributable to greater rates of compromised pregnancies and higher fetal losses among African Americans.     

The disadvantaged child: A product of the culture of poverty,his education,and his life chances

Abstract

This study concerns the fertility of Sherpa and Tibetan women living at altitudes over 3,400 meters in Nepal. The average completed fertility (4.77 live births) and estimated crude birth rate (31 to 33 per 1,000) are low relative to low altitude peasant populations as well as to high altitude Andean peasants. Environmental phenomena (hypoxia, iodine deficiency) may be associated with retarded menarchial age and high infant mortality; but the major factors causing the low fertility appear to be cultural rather than environmental. Traditional ceremonial requirements delay the age at marriage until the mid or late twenties. Religious practices promote male and female celibacy. Migrant females and women married to migrant males report reduced fertility, probably because of poor nutrition and health care. Nonmigrant women living in villages that participate extensively in the cash economy have greater access to the growing market economy, health care, and education and report higher numbers of live births and fewer child deaths.     

Vulnerability and Place: Flat Land and Uneven Risk in New Orleans

Vulnerability to extreme events is shaped by both physical and social factors, and Hurricane Katrina brutally exposed that fact in New Orleans. Historically, low-income Irish and Italian populations suffered when floods washed over the Crescent City. Modifications in the structural defenses to floods and shifting demographics since 1950 altered the geography of vulnerability. In recent years, both blacks and whites have occupied below-sea-level sites, exposing both to flood risks, although the racial composition of the city has undergone a near reversal. Additionally, low-income residents, found disproportionately within the African American population, suffered dual vulnerability. Not only did many live in low-lying areas but evacuation plans relied on private automobiles that left many poor residents to endure the impact of the hurricane-induced flooding.     

American Indians with African Ancestry: Differential Fertility and the Complexities of Social Identity

Interethnic marriage represents a major trend in the demographic history of American Indians. While the majority of these unions involved Indian women and Caucasian men, a sizeable number occurred between Indians and African Americans. The children of these bicultural marriages were “mixed bloods” who in turn typically married non-Indians or other mixed bloods. Using data from the 1910 Census on American Indians in the United States and Alaska, this article explores why American Indians with African ancestry enjoyed high fertility. Differential rates of fertility among American Indians in the past were due to a number of underlying genetic, cultural, and environmental factors. By identifying these factors, the paradox of why Indian women with African heritage did so well in terms of fertility largely disappears. African admixture, however, greatly complicates Indian social identity.     

Fertility Desires and Intentions of HIV-Positive Women of Reproductive Age in Ontario,Canada: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background

Improvements in life expectancy and quality of life for HIV-positive women coupled with reduced vertical transmission will likely lead numerous HIV-positive women to consider becoming pregnant. In order to clarify the demand, and aid with appropriate health services planning for this population, our study aims to assess the fertility desires and intentions of HIV-positive women of reproductive age living in Ontario, Canada.

Methodology/Principal Findings

A cross-sectional study with recruitment stratified to match the geographic distribution of HIV-positive women of reproductive age (18–52) living in Ontario was carried out. Women were recruited from 38 sites between October 2007 and April 2009 and invited to complete a 189-item self-administered survey entitled “The HIV Pregnancy Planning Questionnaire” designed to assess fertility desires, intentions and actions. Logistic regression models were fit to calculate unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios of significant predictors of fertility intentions. The median age of the 490 participating HIV-positive women was 38 (IQR, 32–43) and 61%, 52%, 47% and 74% were born outside of Canada, living in Toronto, of African ethnicity and currently on antiretroviral therapy, respectively. Of total respondents, 69% (95% CI, 64%–73%) desired to give birth and 57% (95% CI, 53%–62%) intended to give birth in the future. In the multivariable model, the significant predictors of fertility intentions were: younger age (age<40) (p<0.0001), African ethnicity (p<0.0001), living in Toronto (p = 0.002), and a lower number of lifetime births (p = 0.02).

Conclusions/Significance

The proportions of HIV-positive women of reproductive age living in Ontario desiring and intending pregnancy were higher than reported in earlier North American studies. Proportions were more similar to those reported from African populations. Healthcare providers and policy makers need to consider increasing services and support for pregnancy planning for HIV-positive women. This may be particularly significant in jurisdictions with high levels of African immigration.     

Assessing the reproductive behavior of on- and off-reservation American Indian females: characteristics of two groups in Montana

Only limited fertility and general reproductive health data exist on American Indians. Using data from the 1987 Montana American Indian Health Risk Assessment, we found that the fertility of American Indians in Great Falls and on the Blackfeet Reservation was similar to blacks in the U.S. and relatively high when compared with fertility of whites in the United States. The influence of the direct determinants of fertility (nuptiality, contraceptive use, and lactation) was very different for the populations examined in this study. Great Falls American Indians and the U.S. black population were similar regarding age at first sexual intercourse (very young), breastfeeding (low prevalence and short duration), planning status of pregnancies (high unplanned), and contraceptive use (only moderate use). In contrast, Blackfeet women on the reservation and the U.S. white population married relatively late, had very high contraceptive use, used effective methods of contraception, and had moderately high levels of breastfeeding. However, Blackfeet fertility was much higher than that of whites. Three interrelated reasons are suggested as possible explanations. Blackfeet couples either wanted high fertility, were relatively poor users of family planning methods, or used less effective methods until they had exceeded their desired family size after which time they turned to sterilization. These finds raise numerous questions concerning the social and economic factors that may account for these group similarities and differences. Further studies with much larger data sets are needed to address these issues adequately.     

Parental recognition of overweight in school-age children

Objective: Examine the accuracy of parental weight perceptions of overweight children before and after the implementation of childhood obesity legislation that included BMI screening and feedback. Methods and Procedures: Statewide telephone surveys of parents of overweight (BMI ≥ 85th percentile) Arkansas public school children before (n = 1,551; 15% African American) and after (n = 2,508; 15% African American) policy implementation were examined for correspondence between parental perception of child's weight and objective classification. Results: Most (60%) parents of overweight children underestimated weight at baseline. Parents of younger children were significantly more likely to underestimate (65%) than parents of adolescents (51%). Overweight parents were not more likely to underestimate, nor was inaccuracy associated with parental education or socioeconomic status. African‐American parents were twice as likely to underestimate as whites. One year after BMI screening and feedback was implemented, the accuracy of classification of overweight children improved (53% underestimation). African‐American parents had significantly greater improvements than white parents (P < 0.0001). Discussion: Parental recognition of childhood overweight may be improved with BMI screening and feedback, and African‐American parents may specifically benefit. Nonetheless, underestimation of overweight is common and may have implications for public health interventions.     

Stable aggregate fertility in a time of family change: a decomposition of trends in American fertility, 1970-1999

Population-level birth rates in the United States were largely stable between 1970 and 1999. This stability contrasts with rapid change in marriage rates and fertility timing during the same period. In this article, I use decomposition techniques to analyze this seeming paradox. I decompose the general fertility rate into four components: age distribution, marital status, age-specific nonmarital fertility, and age-specific marital fertility. Absent other changes, declining time spent married would have led to substantial decline in fertility. Several factors combined to counterbalance these changes in marital behavior. Among white women in the 1970s and 1980s, marital fertility rates increased at older ages, consistent with a scenario in which women postponed both marriage and childbearing; increased nonmarital birth rates during this period were not a driving factor in overall fertility trends. Increased nonmarital fertility was more important in compensating for declining time spent married among African American women and among white women in the 1990s.     

Menopause and the transmission of women's knowledge: African American and white women's perspectives

Recent menopause literature does not sufficiently explore women's attitudes on the transmission of knowledge about menopause from sources other than biomedical providers. Analysis of 70 interviews with African American and Euro-American women shows that their perceptions of the intergenerational transfer of knowledge about menopause from their mothers shaped their attitudes toward menopause and the health-care technologies surrounding it. African American women who grew up in the segregated South frequently expressed that their mothers provided them with the knowledge and power to negotiate difficulties during the menopausal process, while many middle-class Euro-American women expressed that their mothers did not. Drawing on literature that examines the effects of race, class, and kinship on mother/daughter relationships, this article explores the reasons for this divergence.     

Controls over reproductive phenology among ungulates: allometry and tropical‐temperate contrasts

Ungulates inhabiting high latitudes schedule the timing of conceptions so that offspring are born during the most favourable nutritional conditions for reproductive success. The optimal period for births is less reliably predictable in tropical and subtropical savanna environments where plant growth is governed by rainfall, suggesting that reproductive phenology could be influenced more proximately by resources affecting the body condition of females around the time of conceptions. To assess how these controls operate, we compared the timing of births and conceptions among tropical and subtropical savanna ungulates with the patterns shown by ungulates in northern temperate or subarctic latitudes. The association between the timing of births and the onset of plant growth early in the growing season is less consistent among tropical savanna ungulates than among ungulates inhabiting northern temperate environments, and apparently subject to other influences affecting vegetation phenology. Nevertheless, birth peaks seem to coincide with the time of the year when forage quality is expected to be best for offspring survival and growth for most tropical or subtropical ungulates with gestation periods shorter than a year. When gestation time exceeds one year, proximal effects of nutritional conditions around the time of conceptions apparently become overriding and birth synchrony with early season plant growth is no longer effective. Proximate nutritional influences on conceptions may also govern the somewhat diffuse spread of births shown by ungulate populations in equatorial latitudes where photoperiod cues controlling oestrus and mating cannot be used to schedule the later timing of births.     

Birth sex ratio in captive mammals: Patterns,biases, and the implications for management and conservation

Sex allocation theory predicts that a female should produce the offspring of the sex that most increases her own fitness. For polygynous species, this means that females in superior condition should bias offspring production toward the sex with greater variation in lifetime reproductive success, which is typically males. Captive mammal populations are generally kept in good nutritional condition with low levels of stress, and thus populations of polygynous species might be expected to have birth sex ratios biased toward males. Sex allocation theory also predicts that when competition reduces reproductive success of the mother, she should bias offspring toward whichever sex disperses. These predicted biases would have a large impact on captive breeding programs because unbalanced sex ratios may compromise use of limited space in zoos. We examined 66 species of mammals from three taxonomic orders (primates, ungulates, and carnivores) maintained in North American zoos for evidence of birth sex ratio bias. Contrary to our expectations, we found no evidence of bias toward male births in polygynous populations. We did find evidence that birth sex ratios of primates are male biased and that, within primates, offspring sex was biased toward the naturally dispersing sex. We also found that most species experienced long contiguous periods of at least 7 years with either male‐ or female‐biased sex ratios, owing in part to patterns of dispersal (for primates) and/or to stochastic causes. Population managers must be ready to compensate for significant biases in birth sex ratio based on dispersal and stochasticity. Zoo Biol 19:11–25, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

A review of data needed to parameterize a dynamic model of measles in developing countries

Background

Dynamic models of infection transmission can project future disease burden within a population. Few dynamic measles models have been developed for low-income countries, where measles disease burden is highest. Our objective was to review the literature on measles epidemiology in low-income countries, with a particular focus on data that are needed to parameterize dynamic models.

Methods

We included age-stratified case reporting and seroprevalence studies with fair to good sample sizes for mostly urban African and Indian populations. We emphasized studies conducted before widespread immunization. We summarized age-stratified attack rates and seroprevalence profiles across these populations. Using the study data, we fitted a "representative" seroprevalence profile for African and Indian settings. We also used a catalytic model to estimate the age-dependent force of infection for individual African and Indian studies where seroprevalence was surveyed. We used these data to quantify the effects of population density on the basic reproductive number R ₀.

Results

The peak attack rate usually occurred at age 1 year in Africa, and 1 to 2 years in India, which is earlier than in developed countries before mass vaccination. Approximately 60% of children were seropositive for measles antibody by age 2 in Africa and India, according to the representative seroprevalence profiles. A statistically significant decline in the force of infection with age was found in 4 of 6 Indian seroprevalence studies, but not in 2 African studies. This implies that the classic threshold result describing the critical proportion immune (p _c) required to eradicate an infectious disease, p _c = 1-1/R ₀, may overestimate the required proportion immune to eradicate measles in some developing country populations. A possible, though not statistically significant, positive relation between population density and R ₀ for various Indian and African populations was also found. These populations also showed a similar pattern of waning of maternal antibodies. Attack rates in rural Indian populations show little dependence on vaccine coverage or population density compared to urban Indian populations. Estimated R ₀ values varied widely across populations which has further implications for measles elimination.

Conclusions

It is possible to develop a broadly informative dynamic model of measles transmission in low-income country settings based on existing literature, though it may be difficult to develop a model that is closely tailored to any given country. Greater efforts to collect data specific to low-income countries would aid in control efforts by allowing highly population-specific models to be developed.     

Genetic differentiation between American and European Drosophila melanogaster populations could be attributed to admixture of African alleles

A total of 48 polymorphic microsatellite loci were characterized in 13 Drosophila melanogaster populations originating from Europe, America, and Africa. Consistent with previous results, the African D. melanogaster populations were the most differentiated populations and harbored most variation. Despite an overall similarity, American and European populations were significantly differentiated. Interestingly, genetic distances based on the proportion of shared alleles as well as FST values suggested that the American D. melanogaster populations are more closely related to the African populations than European ones are. We also detected a higher proportion of putative African alleles in the American populations, indicating recent admixture of African alleles on the American continent.