An evolutionary account of science: A response to Rosenberg's critical notice

In his critical notice, Rosenberg (1991) raises three objections to my evolutionary account of science: whether it is more than a week metaphor, the compatibility of my past objections to reduction and my current advocacy of viewing selection in terms of replication and interaction, and finally, the feasibility of identifying appropriate replicators and interactors in biological evolution, let alone conceptual evolution. I discuss each of these objections in turn.     

EVOLUTION AND CREATIONISM IN MIDDLE EASTERN EDUCATION: A NEW PERSPECTIVE

Statements made in a recent outcry against a creationist in the Israeli Ministry of Education starkly illuminated Western misconceptions about Iranian science education. These misconceptions are perpetuated not only among the general public but also within the international scientific community, where investigations of "Islamic creationism" often incorporate misleading assumptions regarding Islamic religious attitudes toward science as well as the nature of secularism in non‐Western states. In turn, these assumptions have led to superficial analyses that overly rely on state religiosity to explain the treatment of evolution in national science education. Therefore, a new framework accounting for local political and social circumstances is crucial and urgently needed to effectively analyze science education in the Middle East.     

翅果形态及其在槭树科分类与演化上的意义

槭树科（Ａｃｅｒａｃｅａｅ）是北温带分布的科,含２属,全世界约２００种,中国是槭树科植物的现代分布中心。对槭树科翅果的专门研究尚未见报道。本文１、引用一套槭属翅果形态学术语;２、观察并描述７５种械属植物的翅果;３、研究槭属１６个组的翅果的１７个可比性状,根据分枝系统分析法得出槭属各组的演化关系及趋势,这趋势与依据其花、叶等性状得出的演化关系基本上是一致的。     

EVOLUTION OF GENERALISTS AND SPECIALISTS IN SPATIALLY HETEROGENEOUS ENVIRONMENTS

Quantitative genetic models are used to investigate the evolution of generalists and specialists in a coarse-grained environment with two habitat types when there are costs attached to being a generalist. The outcomes for soft and hard selection models are qualitatively different. Under soft selection (e.g., for juvenile or male-reproductive traits) the population evolves towards the single peak in the adaptive landscape. At equilibrium, the population mean phenotype is a compromise between the reaction that would be optimal in both habitats and the reaction with the lowest cost. Furthermore, the equilibrium is closer to the optimal phenotype in the most frequent habitat, or the habitat in which selection on the focal trait is stronger. A specialist genotype always has a lower fitness than a generalist, even when the costs are high. In contrast, under hard selection (e.g., for adult or female-reproductive traits) the adaptive landscape can have one, two, or three peaks; a peak represents a population specialized to one habitat, equally adapted to both habitats, or an intermediate. One peak is always found when the reaction with the lowest cost is not much different from the optimal reaction, and this situation is similar to the soft selection case. However, multiple peaks are present when the costs become higher, and the course of evolution is then determined by initial conditions, and the region of attraction of each peak. This implies that the evolution of specialization and phenotypic plasticity may not only depend on selection regimes within habitats, but also on contingent, historical events (migration, mutation). Furthermore, the evolutionary dynamics in changing environments can be widely different for populations under hard and soft selection. Approaches to measure costs in natural and experimental populations are discussed.     

硫酸软骨素的提取和纯化分离技术

介绍了硫酸软骨素的来源、结构、性质及其生理功能,对硫酸软骨素的提取、纯化及分离技术进行了综述。     

中国石竹属的分类,演化和分布

本文报道我国石竹属植物有１７种１亚种９变种（其中１新变种）,分属于４组。石竹、瞿麦和长萼瞿麦分布最广。新疆种类最多（１１种１变种）,是我国本属植物的分布和分化中心。新疆和哈萨克斯坦有１０共有种,说明新疆的中亚的植物区系联系密切。     

ORIGINS,EVOLUTION, AND DIVERSIFICATION OF CLEPTOPARASITIC LINEAGES IN LONG‐TONGUED BEES

The evolution of parasitic behavior may catalyze the exploitation of new ecological niches yet also binds the fate of a parasite to that of its host. It is thus not clear whether evolutionary transitions from free‐living organism to parasite lead to increased or decreased rates of diversification. We explore the evolution of brood parasitism in long‐tongued bees and find decreased rates of diversification in eight of 10 brood parasitic clades. We propose a pathway for the evolution of brood parasitic strategy and find that a strategy in which a closed host nest cell is parasitized and the host offspring is killed by the adult parasite represents an obligate first step in the appearance of a brood parasitic lineage; this ultimately evolves into a strategy in which an open host cell is parasitized and the host offspring is killed by a specialized larval instar. The transition to parasitizing open nest cells expanded the range of potential hosts for brood parasitic bees and played a fundamental role in the patterns of diversification seen in brood parasitic clades. We address the prevalence of brood parasitic lineages in certain families of bees and examine the evolution of brood parasitism in other groups of organisms.     

植物交酸系统的进化、资源分配对策与遗传多样性

影响植物自交率进化的选择力量主要体现在两个方面：当外来花粉量不足时,自交可以提高植物的结实率,即雌性适合度（繁殖保障）;而如果进行自交的花粉比异交花粉更易获得使胚珠受精的机会,那么自交也可以提高植物的雄性适合度（自动选择优势）。但是,鉴别什么时候是繁殖保障、什么时候是自动选择优势导致了自交的进化却是极其困难的。花粉贴现降低了自交植物通过异交花粉途径获得的适合度,即减弱了自动选择优势,而近交衰退既减少了自动选择优势也减少了繁残给自交者带来的利益。具有不同交配系统的植物种群将具有不同的资源分配对策。理论研究已经说明,自交率增加将减少植物对雄性功能的资源分配比例,但将使繁殖分配加大,而且在一定条件下交配系统在改变甚至可以导致植物生活史发生剧烈变化,即从多年生变为一年生。文献中支持自交减少植物雄性投入的证据有很多,但是对繁殖分配与自交率的关系目前还没有系统的研究,资源分配理论可以解释植物繁育系统的多样性,尤其是能够3说明为什么大多数植物都是雌雄同体的,自交对植物种群遗传结构的影响是减少种群内的遗传变异,增加种群间的遗传分化,长期以来人们一直猜测,自交者可能会丢掉一些长期进化的潜能,目前这个假说得到了一些支持。     

PERSPECTIVE: DARWIN,PROGRESS, AND ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES

Darwin's concept of progress was an economic one, with the accumulation of adaptations having a strong analogy to technological innovations. This interpretation makes it easier to understand his differences with Lamarck and others whose views he considered metaphysically objectionable. It also clarifies his relationship to Malthus and such features of his theory as the episodic nature of evolutionary change. His position is consistent with modern theories of biotic invasions and long-term evolutionary trends. It also accords well with current efforts to produce a synthesis between biology and economics.     

杂交在进化中的作用及杂种的识别和分类处理

所谓杂交和杂种,可以有不同的概念。从最广义的角度来理解,凡基因型不同的个体之间的交配都叫杂交。基因杂合状态是自然界正常的现象。互交繁育的生物体,在正常情况下,在许多位点上都是不同等位基因的杂合体,也就是杂种,它们在自交和杂合时都产生有变异和分离的子代。但杂交最常用的含义是指已有生殖隔离的异种个体或甚至异     

中华鳖胸腺显微和亚显微结构及其在进化上的意义

应用透射电子显微镜观察了中华鳖胸腺的显微和亚显微结构。发现中华鳖胸腺从结构上可分为皮质和髓质,皮质富含淋巴细胞,髓质富含上皮性网状细胞。在各发育期中华鳖胸腺皮质、髓质交界处和髓质区有明显的囊状胸腺小体和交错突细胞。在２００ｇ以上的成年鳖胸腺内发现有同心圆状胸腺小体。电镜下,胸腺内淋巴细胞分为大、中、小３型。上皮性网状细胞从亚显微结构上分为支持型和分泌型。胸腺囊包括细胞内囊和细胞间囊,以细胞内囊居多     

上新世以采的中国自然地理环境和中国古人类的进化

本文通过把中国古人类的进化摆到中国这一特定的地理区域、特定的自然地理环境中去作联系的考察,提出如下几点看法:1.中国是世界上很早就为人类所居住的地区之一,受自然地理环境的影响和制约,中国古人类主要生存于自然条件较好的东部季风区域;2.古人类在中国境内主要是由南向北、进而向东北方向扩散和分布;3.中国最早的古人类可能是外来的,可能是从中国南部边境进入中国境内的。     

东南亚和云南爬行动物区系的一致性及其起源和演化

云南与川、黔、贵等邻近省区都属于东南亚的一部分。依据爬行动物分布范围广的特点,把云南爬行动物区系起源和演化与东南亚甚至南亚的爬行动物作为一个整体进行研究,可能为解决东南亚及云南爬行动物某些类群的起源这一共同性问题,提供一些有用的资料。 本文将印度半岛、东南亚及其邻近岛屿现生爬行动物与世界范围的相同科级阶元的分布进行比较,并以古地质、古地理演变资料推论科级阶元同祖先起源地的大致范围。在此基础上,再将印度半岛、中南半岛和邻近岛屿,云南高原及邻近地区爬行动物的科属种进行比较,以探讨地区间差异的规律性。运用新构造运动和古气候变化观点阐明其物种或类群的迁移规律及其变化原因。     

中国孢粉学发展的契机与抉择(兼论文集后记)

回顾中国孢粉学的发展历程,认为孢粉学在中国的兴起和发展是与国家的经济建设,以及改革开放政策和知识创新工程的先后实施所带来的契机紧密相联系.呼吁中国孢粉工作者能正面抉择,不断创新,共同促成学科的理论发展和学科间的联合.简要介绍论文集内容,除本文外,含回顾性文章2篇、地层孢粉论文8篇、表土花粉的陆地植被覆盖度模拟和孢粉通量论文各1篇、现代花粉形态论文3篇.     

亚洲高海拔锄足蟾的地理分布特点,起源与演化,分化中心的探讨

本文在探讨亚洲高海拔锄足蟾的属间分类的基础上,进一步对其齿蟾属Oreolalax和齿突蟾属Scutiger所隶的齿突蟾亚属Scutiger(Scutiger)、猫眼蟾亚属Scutiger(Aelurophryne),共计29种的地理分布及其特点作了概括性的综述;并探讨了他们的起源和演化途径;横断山系地区可能是它们的主要分化中心和物种形成中心。     

外来入侵种紫茎泽兰研究进展与展望

紫茎泽兰(Eupatorium adenophorum)是20世纪40年代经中缅边境传入我国的一种外来入侵种,原产于中美洲的墨西哥和哥斯达黎加,现已在我国南方和西南地区广泛分布,并且其蔓延速度极快,引起了社会各界的广泛关注。近年来,随着研究的不断深入和拓展,新的研究成果不断涌现,使紫茎泽兰成功入侵的机理性问题不断被揭示出来。该文简要介绍了目前我国关于紫茎泽兰研究的几个热点问题,这些问题主要围绕着紫茎泽兰的分布和预测、入侵扩散机制以及防除方法3个方面展开。其中以紫茎泽兰作为典型外来入侵种来研究其入侵扩散机制的工作最多。该文就目前的研究进展做一综述,并提出今后的研究建议。     

CAENOGENESIS,DEVELOPMENTAL VARIABILITY,AND EVOLUTION IN THE CARPUS AND TARSUS OF THE MARBLED NEWT TRITURUS MARMORATUS

In this paper, after a comparative analysis of the development of Triturus marmoratus, we explore the existence of caenogenetic events and their ontogenetic and phylogenetic consequences. The adult morphology of the Triturus marmoratus limb, in terms of number and spatial arrangement of skeletal elements, agrees with the general pattern of urodeles. The congruence in the typical pattern of adult morphology does not hint at the striking differences in embryonic development. These differences can be summarized as follows: 1) Presence of a “central axis” that develops in a distal-to-proximal direction. It originates in the basale commune giving rise to the centrale and the intermedium. Thus, there is no postaxial branching as found in Ambystoma mexicanum. 2) Again, unlike in Ambystoma mexicanum, we find a postaxial structure composed of the ulnare (fibulare)-distal carpal (tarsal) 4-metacarpal (metatarsal) 4 which is independent of the “digital arch.” 3) The (forelimb) digits, in particular, digits 1, 2, and 3, undergo disproportionate elongation. For example, the second digit, composed of a thin continuous, cartilaginous rod, becomes longer than the rest of the limb. Our study of the patterns of embryonic connectivity suggests the coexistence of three directions of growth and morphogenesis in the development of the Triturus marmoratus limb. 1) A proximo-distal one that gives rise to the preaxial axis, “primary axis,” and individual digits. 2) An anterio-posterior axis of development that gives rise to the “digital arch” and determines the number of digits. 3) A disto-proximal central axis that originates in the basale commune and sequentially generates the centrale and the intermedium. We speculate that heterochronic interspecific variation in the time of onset of limb bud formation is related to the degree of precocious digital elongation. Selection for long extremities in early larval stages, associated with functional demands for locomotion and balancing, may be the cause for the above listed changes in developmental pattern. Thus, the reported system is an example of how selection during ontogeny can result in the evolution of the developmental process.     

DISSECTION OF EVOLUTIONARY NETWORKS TO ASSESS THEIR ROLE IN THE EVOLUTION OF ROBUSTNESS,FUNCTION, AND DIVERSIFICATION

Biological systems are remarkably robust in the face of environmental, mutational, and developmental perturbations. Analyses of molecular networks reveal recurrent features, such as modularity, that have been implicated in robustness and evolvability. Multiple theoretical models account for these features, yet few empirical tests of these models exist. Here I develop a set of broadly applicable methodologies to enable expanded empirical evaluation of model predictions. The methodologies focus on the inference and analysis of networks that depict evolutionary correlations among characters. I apply these methodologies to analyze an evolutionary network at a larger scale of organization among 42 stem anatomical and morphological characters of 52 species in the genus Adenia (Passifloraceae). I evaluate a model predicting that modular evolutionary networks will evolve in response to environmental change. The evolutionary network of Adenia is modular and “small‐world,” and the three diagnosed modules correspond roughly to functions of transport, storage, and mechanical support. The phylogenetically informed analyses suggest that the storage module is more impacted by environmental change than expected by chance. These results corroborate the hypothesis that modularity reduces the impact of environmental change, but this result requires further empirical evaluation that can be aided by the proposed methods in additional study systems.