Fighting During Suckling: Is it Really an Epiphenomenon?

Suckling by piglets and kittens is accompanied by intense fighting among littermates. There are strong arguments that support the fighting for teats as an epiphenomenon, such as there being a sufficient number of mammary glands (teats) that are of equal quality for littermates, as suggested by Hudson and Distel (Ethology, 119, 2013, 353). However, this article presents a possible adaptive explanation for fighting during suckling. To substantiate the adaptive function of suckling fights, the disposability and limitations of colostrum are first considered. Other aspects are also discussed, such as the potential role of social thermoregulation, the stimulation of mammary glands (massage) and milk composition. Adaptive explanations for the absence/presence and intensity of suckling fights across species consider differences in the colostrum and mature milk composition, mechanisms of transferring immunoglobulin that supply passive immunity to neonates, strategies used to compete for teats and litter size. However, agonistic behaviours in the context of suckling should not be simply categorised as an epiphenomenon.     

Effect of crate opening from day 3 postpartum to weaning on nursing and suckling behaviour in domestic pigs

Temporary crating may be a more acceptable housing system for lactating sows than permanent crating and loose-housing because it combines benefits of both systems while reducing some of their limitations. It remains unclear whether nursing and sucking behaviour is influenced after crate opening. The aim of this study was to assess the short- (24 h post-crate opening) and long-term (day 25 postpartum (pp.)) effects of opening the farrowing crate from day 3 pp. to weaning on nursing and suckling behaviour. Sows were crated from 5 days prepartum either to weaning (permanently crated group; n = 14) or 3 days pp. (temporarily crated group; n = 13). Sows and their litters were observed on days 4 and 25. Duration of pre- and post-massages, nursing termination, number of piglets missing milk ejection and number of piglets fighting during pre- and post-massages were scored at 15-s intervals. Nursing success (i.e. with or without milk ejection) was also recorded. Data were analysed using PROC GLM and PROC GENMOD of SAS including housing, litter size and parity as fixed effects. Nursing behaviour did not differ between sows housed in temporary crates and those housed in permanent crates on days 4 and 25 pp., that is, same number of nutritive nursings (NNs), same proportion of non-NNs, same duration of post-massages and same proportion of termination of post-massages. There was only a housing effect on day 25; with sows having longer pre-massages in permanent crates (P < 0.05). Suckling behaviour was overall similar between treatments. There were no differences in the number of piglets attending pre- and post-massages, proportion of piglets fighting during pre-and post-massages and the proportion of piglets missing milk ejection on both days. The only housing effect was found on day 25 during which fewer piglets attended post-massages (P < 0.05) in permanent crates. Sows with larger litters terminated post-massages more often (P < 0.05), allowed shorter post-massages (P < 0.05) on day 4, and had more piglets miss milk ejection on days 4 and 25 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, the results of this study showed that housing had a very limited effect on nursing and suckling behaviour. Sow and piglet behaviours were not altered after crate opening (short-term effect) and nursing was to some extent calmer (shorter pre-massages and more piglets attended post-massages) in temporary crates on day 25. Increased litter size impaired nursing and suckling behaviour of sows and piglets independently of the housing system.     

Increasing weaning age of piglets from 4 to 7 weeks reduces stress, increases post-weaning feed intake but does not improve intestinal functionality

This study tested the hypothesis that late weaning and the availability of creep feed during the suckling period compared with early weaning, improves feed intake, decreases stress and improves the integrity of the intestinal tract. In this study with 160 piglets of 16 litters, late weaning at 7 weeks of age was compared with early weaning at 4 weeks, with or without creep feeding during the suckling period, on post-weaning feed intake, plasma cortisol (as an indicator of stress) and plasma intestinal fatty acid binding protein (I-FABP; a marker for mild intestinal injury) concentrations, intestinal morphology, intestinal (macro)molecular permeability and intestinal fluid absorption as indicators of small intestinal integrity. Post-weaning feed intake was similar in piglets weaned at 4 weeks and offered creep feed or not, but higher (P < 0.001) in piglets weaned at 7 weeks with a higher (P < 0.05) intake for piglets offered creep feed compared with piglets from whom creep feed was witheld. Plasma cortisol response at the day of weaning was lower in piglets weaned at 7 weeks compared with piglets weaned at 4 weeks, and creep feed did not affect cortisol concentration. Plasma I-FABP concentration was not affected by the age of weaning and creep feeding. Intestinal (macro)molecular permeability was not affected by the age of weaning and creep feeding. Both in uninfected and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli-infected small intestinal segments net fluid absorption was not affected by the age of weaning or creep feeding. Creep feeding, but not the age of weaning, resulted in higher villi and increased crypt depth. In conclusion, weaning at 7 weeks of age in combination with creep feeding improves post-weaning feed intake and reduces weaning stress but does not improve functional characteristics of the small intestinal mucosa.     

The influence of the thermal environment and other early life events on growth rate of piglets during lactation

The effects of early life events on average daily weight gain from birth to day 21 (ADG) of suckling pigs kept at different room temperatures (15°C, 20°C and 25°C) from birth to weaning were investigated. Data were collected from litters born by 61 sows in a loose housing system. The ADG for piglets with low birth weight (estimated for birth weights below the 10% percentile) was estimated to be 20 to 30 g higher per day at room temperature 20°C to 25°C compared with 15°C. In contrast, the ADG during the lactation period decreased for larger piglets (estimated for birth weights above the 10% percentile) by 28 g/day at room temperature 25°C compared with 15°C. Thus, high ambient temperatures (20°C to 25°C) are favourable for the growth in smaller piglets during lactation. Neither latency to first suckle nor birth-induced hypoxia, measured as concentration of umbilical cord lactate, affected the growth rate of the piglets. Lowest rectal temperature during the first 24 h after birth had a long-term negative effect on ADG (P<0.05), so that piglets with a lowest rectal temperature of 32.8°C (10% percentile) had an ADG which was on average 19 g lower per day than piglets with a rectal temperature of 37.3°C (90% percentile). Our results showed that hypothermia at birth, low birth weight and high number of suckling piglets lead to reduced ADG during the suckling period. The results suggest that keeping the room temperature at 20°C during lactation to some extent could compensate for the otherwise negative effects of low birth weight on ADG in piglets without decreasing the ADG of high birth weight piglets. However, to avoid hypothermia in the smallest piglets it may be beneficial to increase the room temperature above 20°C during the farrowing period of loose housed sows.     

Plasma relaxin levels during suckling and oxytocin stimulation in the lactating sow

Plasma relaxin levels were measured in animals at different stages of lactation and related to the amount of nuzzling and suckling behavior exhibited by the piglets. Only in some acute suckling episodes was relaxin secreted rapidly and episodically in spite of normal piglet and sow behavior and interaction. However, when the piglets were removed from the dams 6 h before suckling, the sows were very restless and the relaxin response to suckling was delayed. Oxytocin injection in lactating but nonsuckled sows caused an episodic secretion of relaxin similar to suckling itself. The source of relaxin in the lactating sow may be the old corpus luteum, since progesterone levels increased acutely, somewhat reflecting the profile of relaxin increase over the suckling episode.     

Effect of maternally supplied n-3 and n-6 oils on the fatty acid composition and mononuclear immune cell distribution of lymphatic tissue from the gastrointestinal tract of suckling piglets

Fatty acids are essential for immune cell function. Maternal dietary fatty acid supply influences body fat composition of their offspring. As a first step to study immunonutritional interactions at an early age of pigs, four sows were fed a diet containing sunflower oil or oil from seal blubber during pregnancy and lactation. Corresponding piglets were sacrificed at three consecutive time points in the suckling period and their mesenteric lymph nodes and spleen were analysed by gas chromatography for levels of fatty acid. At the same time mononuclear cells of these organs and of the intestinal lymphoid tissue from the jejunum were isolated and subpopulations characterised by flow cytometry. Levels of fatty acids from the lymphatic organs of the piglets were significantly influenced by the maternal diet. The concentration of the fatty acids 20:5n-3, 22:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 were higher in the spleen and mesenteric lymph node of piglets suckled to sows of the test diet. Additionally, suckling time affected the levels of some long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Dietary effects were seen on some subpopulations including CD4-CD8alpha+ lymphocytes of the mesenteric lymph nodes and CD4+CD8alpha+ lymphocytes of the lamina propria, which were higher in the group fed seal blubber oil. The levels of CD21+ B-cells were higher in the group fed sunflower oil. The results indicate that the maternal diet and suckling time affect the fatty acid status of the investigated lymphatic tissues of piglets, but may have minor effects on the investigated lymphocyte subpopulations.     

Early social isolation alters behavioral and physiological responses to an endotoxin challenge in piglets

Psychosocial stress in the form of maternal deprivation and social isolation during early postnatal life induces persistent alterations in behavioral and physiological mechanisms of adaptation. One consequence may be an increased susceptibility to diseases in later life. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate in domestic piglets the effects of a repeated social isolation (2 h daily from day 3 to day 11 of age) on behavioral, endocrine and immune responses to an endotoxin challenge with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) 1 day or 45 days after the isolation period. Peripheral LPS administration caused serious sickness behavior (somnolence, shivering, vomiting) and provoked profound increases in circulating tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), ACTH and cortisol concentrations. The prior social isolation treatment enhanced signs of sickness and impaired suckling behavior. Early isolated piglets responded to LPS by an increase of shivering on day 12 and by increased vomiting on day 56 compared to controls. Further, there were considerable delays and reductions of time isolated piglets spent suckling on day 12. The repeated isolation stressor diminished TNF-alpha increases after LPS, whereas stress hormone levels were not significantly affected by isolation treatment. Finally, stronger relationships between signs of sickness and physiological measures were revealed in early isolated piglets. The duration of somnolence in isolated piglets was related to changes of cortisol and TNF-alpha concentrations, and the highest impact on duration of shivering was found for changes in cortisol and corticosteroid binding globulin levels. The present results suggest a sustained adaptive sensitization of coping with infection by social stress experience during early development in piglets.     

Impact of litter size,supplementary milk replacer and housing on the body composition of piglets from hyper-prolific sows at weaning

The modern hyper-prolific sow gives birth to 17 live-born piglets on average. An alternative strategy to nurse sows and artificial rearing may be providing milk replacer while letting all the piglets stay with their dam. However, milk replacer is of lower nutritional quality than sow milk and may reduce the body fat content of piglets who use milk replacer to compensate for low suckling success due to competition at the udder. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the body composition at weaning of two random sow-reared piglets per litter from 93 litters by using the deuterium oxide dilution technique. The piglets were part of large study with a 2×2×2 factorial design of either 14 or 17 piglets from day 1 (LS: LS14/LS17) with or without access to milk replacer (MILK: -MILK/+MILK) and reared by crated or loose-housed sows (HOUSING: CRATE/ LOOSE). From behavioral observations day 21 in +MILK, piglets were divided according to their frequency of drinking milk replacer and suckling (Nutrition Source). Increasing LS from 14 to 17 reduced the average daily gain from 258 to 228 g/d and body fat % from 14.4 to 12.7% (P<0.01). In a two-way interaction between LS and HOUSNG, the body fat percentage was lower (P=0.04) and the water percentage tended to be higher (P=0.07) in LS17 CRATE compared to the other treatments (i.e. LS17 LOOSE, LS14 CRATE and LOOSE). There was no effect of MILK on piglet composition day 28 (P>0.1). In +MILK, the Nutrition Source affected piglet body composition (P<0.05) as piglets with low suckling frequency (LOW) had lower body fat and higher water content compared to piglets who had high suckling frequency (SUCKLE). Unexpectedly, drinking milk replacer in addition to suckling (MIXED) did not increase piglet body fat content. Relying mainly on milk replacer (CUP) caused body fat and water contents to be intermediate to piglets with high (SUCKLE and MIXED) and low suckling frequency (LOW). In conclusion, LS had a clear impact on piglet growth and body composition at weaning. In contrast, supplementation of milk and housing had only negligible impact on litter performance. Some individual piglets that had low frequency of sow milk intake benefitted from milk supplementation. Loose housing appeared to benefit piglet body fat at weaning but this was due to a greater piglet mortality.     

Suckling effects in sows: importance for mammary development and productivity

An understanding of the mechanisms regulating milk yield in sows is crucial for producers to make the best management decisions during lactation. Suckling of mammary glands by piglets is one factor that is essential for development of these glands during lactation and for the maintenance of lactation in sows. The process of mammary development is not static as the majority of it takes place in the last third of gestation, continues during lactation, is followed by involution at weaning and starts over again in the next gestation. During involution, the mammary glands undergo a rapid and drastic regression in parenchymal tissue, and this can also occur during lactation if a gland is not suckled regularly. Indeed, the pattern of regression is similar for glands that involute at weaning or during lactation. Suckling during 12 to 14 h postpartum is insufficient to maintain lactation and the process of involution that occurs in early lactation is reversible within 1 day of farrowing but is irreversible if a gland is not used for 3 days. However, milk yield from a gland which is ‘rescued’ within the first 24 h remains lower throughout lactation. Suckling does not only affect milk yield in the ongoing lactation, but it also seems to affect that of the next lactation. Indeed, non-suckling of a mammary gland in first-parity sows decreased development and milk yield of that gland in second parity. Nursing behaviour of piglets in early lactation was also affected, where changes were indicative of piglets in second parity being hungrier when suckling glands that were not previously used. It is not known, however, if the same effects would be seen between the second and third lactation. Furthermore, the minimum suckling period required to ensure maximal milk yield from a gland in the next lactation is not known. This review provides an update on our current knowledge of the importance of suckling for mammary development and milk yield in swine.     

Impact of general injection anaesthesia and analgesia on post-castration behaviour and teat order of piglets

Injection anaesthesia with a combination of ketamine and azaperone (K/A) is discussed as a painless alternative to commonly used non-anaesthetized castration. To protect anaesthetized piglets from being crushed, they have to be separated from the sow for 3 h following castration. The aim of this study was to test if this separation and the different treatments would affect short-term behaviour after castration (3 to 6 h after castration) as well as weight gain. Piglets were 5 to 7 days old. Treatment Group 1 received a combination of anaesthesia and analgesia (n = 29, ketamine: 25 mg/kg BW; azaperone: 2 mg/kg BW; meloxicam: 0.4 mg/kg BW), Group 2 received only analgesia (n = 24) and Group 3 received no medication (n = 29). Behaviour and suckling order were compared for a 3 h period the day before castration and after castration. A significantly higher number of teats used by anaesthetized piglets (P = 0.004) suggests a decrease in suckling order stability. There were significant treatment effects between all three groups in the time spent at the sow's teat, with an increase in Group 2 (+69%), decrease in Group 1 (−28%), whereas the control Group 3 (+2%) almost remained unchanged. The anaesthetized piglets showed an increase in the time spent active away from the sow after castration of almost 200% (Groups 2 and 3: ∼50%, P < 0.001). However, no significant treatment effect was seen for weight gain. The results suggest that analgesia has an effect on behaviour, perhaps due to less post-castration pain. This advantage is not apparent for animals receiving additional anaesthesia, probably because of impaired coordination. Although the behavioural changes did not affect weight gain significantly, a decrease in suckling order stability indicates a certain degree of stress due to fighting over teat positions as a consequence of separation. Thus, post-castration behaviour must be taken into account when evaluating alternative castration methods.     

LH pulsatile release patterns, follicular growth and function during repetitive periods of suckling and non-suckling in sows

This paper presents LH, estradiol, and cortisol in 12 sows that were separated from their piglets for 12h a day, beginning around 2w of lactation, until weaning (intermittent suckling, IS). To separate sows from their piglets, the sows either were moved to a different unit (total separation), or were only inhibited from suckling their piglets by a physical barrier (physical separation). Blood samples were frequently collected during 4.5 consecutive days. At the start of IS, four sows showed advanced follicle growth. In the eight remaining sows, total separation resulted in 4/4 sows ovulating, while physical separation resulted in 2/4 sows ovulating. Total and physical separation resulted in different LH secretion patterns. Total separation resulted in a lower amplitude of LH pulses than physical separation throughout the period of sampling (0.26 versus 0.53ng/ml; P<0.01), and seemed to result in an escape from inhibition of LH secretion during suckling. Similarly, sows that ovulated had a lower amplitude of LH pulses (0.30 versus 0.54ng/ml; P<0.05), and also showed a different effect of suckling on LH secretion than anovulatory sows. Total separation, in contrast to physical separation, consistently resulted in increased cortisol after separation (P<0.05). This contrast was not observed between ovulating and non-ovulating sows. We therefore conclude that IS results in an increased LH secretion. Inhibition of all contact between sows and piglets seems to result in a more sustained increase in LH secretion, which increases the chance of ovulation.     

Maternal responsiveness of sows towards piglet's screams during the first 24 h postpartum

In this study we focused on sow responsiveness towards piglet screams which are proposed to have an important link to posture changes and early piglet crushing. A sow's responsiveness to screams of her piglets was investigated along the first 24 h after birth, the period of highest mortality, in 15 lactating sows housed in farrowing crates. We compared the sow's response to playbacks of screams of trapped piglets to her response to a control sound during birth, 8–12 h postpartum and 20–24 h postpartum. We did the same with playbacks of screams of fighting piglets during nursings 8–12 h postpartum and 20–24 h postpartum. The sow’ responsiveness to screams of own trapped piglets was analyzed within the whole 24 h and to screams of fighting piglets 30 min between 8 and 12 h postpartum and 30 min between 20 and 24 h postpartum. A sow was scored as responsive if she changed her posture in response to the stimuli. Sows had a four times higher response towards playbacks with screams than towards the control stimulus. The proportion of the sows’ responsiveness to screams (44%) of trapped piglets did not change significantly between birth, 8–12 h postpartum and 20–24 h postpartum. Sows responded to 28% of playbacks of fighting piglets by terminating a nursing independently from the time after birth. Playbacks and real screams of own piglets were similarly effective in evoking a response for both types of screams. There was no significant association between the sows’ responsiveness to screams of trapped piglets and piglet mortality nor between screams of fighting piglets and weight gain. In conclusion our results indicate that sows maintained their responsiveness towards piglet screams during trapping and during fighting for teats within the first 24 h. Playbacks and real screams were similarly effective in evoking a response. We discuss the importance of the sound characteristics of piglet screams related to the sows’ response.     

Early social contact alters the community structure and functions of the faecal microbiome in suckling-growing piglets

Social contact during suckling, in an enriched social environment, can reduce the aggressive behaviours of piglets during regrouping at weaning, and improve their production performance and welfare. The aim of this study was to determine the possible impact of suckling social contact on gut microbes. We performed 16S rRNA sequencing to measure the faecal microbial structure and function in piglets experiencing social contact. Eighteen-litter piglets were allocated to two treatments: an early continuous social contact (CSC) group where piglets from adjacent pens shared a mutual pen starting at 14 days postpartum and a control (CON) group where piglets had no contact with individuals from adjacent pens during the suckling period. The piglets were regrouped at 36 days of age. The litter weights at 35 and 63 days of age were measured. Faecal samples were randomly collected at 16, 35, 42, and 63 days of age and faecal DNA was determined. The results showed that the litter weight of piglets in the CSC group was significantly decreased at 63 days compared with the CON group. Continuous social contact also significantly decreased the microbial richness at 16 and 35 days of age (P < 0.05). Firmicutes was the most abundant bacterial phylum in both groups at all detected time-points and the abundance increased with social contact. At the genus level, Lactobacillus was the most abundant bacterium after weaning and the abundance increased in the piglets with social contact. Compared with the faecal microbiota of control piglets, a total of 22 genera at 16 days, 20 genera at 35 days, 12 genera at 42 days, and 27 genera at 63 days in the faeces of CSC piglets were observed to be significantly different in abundance (linear discriminant analysis score > 3, P < 0.05). Furthermore, functional analysis of the microbial composition showed that the changes induced by early CSC mainly altered the relative abundance of metabolic and related pathways. The social contact notably had an effect on the abundance of microbial pathways for amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism. In conclusion, CSC changed the microbial composition in the faeces of piglets, which might have a negative effect on nutrient metabolism for the suckling-growing piglets. Our study provided new insight into the influence of social contact on the suckling-growing piglets.     

Short-term behavioural effects of weaning age in outdoor-reared piglets

Age at weaning affects the behaviour of piglets weaned in conventional confined environments. The adaptation of piglets to this event, which exposes piglets to important stressors, has not been examined in detail in outdoor systems. The aim of this study was to compare the behaviour of piglets weaned at 3 or 4 weeks of age in an outdoor production system. Six replicates of four piglets born and raised outdoors, originated from different litters but previously acquainted, were weaned at the age of approximately 20 (D20) or 30 (D30) days in 36 m2 outdoor pens and offered high-quality diets. Their behaviour was recorded by direct visual observation during four consecutive days after weaning (days 1 to 4). Data were analysed by repeated measures ANOVA. An effect of weaning age was observed on feeding and rooting ( P < 0.01), and a day-by-weaning age interaction for escape attempts, vocalizing, walking and fighting ( P < 0.01), and playing ( P < 0.03). Compared to D30 piglets, D20 piglets showed a higher frequency of escape attempts on day 1, vocalized more during days 1 and 2, and walked more during days 1 to 3 ( P < 0.05). Feeding behaviour, on the other hand, was higher in D30 piglets on days 1 to 3 ( P < 0.05). On days 3 and 4, D30 piglets spent more time interacting with peers (playing and fighting; P < 0.05) and on day 4 were more active than D20 piglets ( P < 0.05). As previously reported in confined environments, age at weaning affected the behaviour of piglets raised on the outdoors system. Weaning appeared to be more stressful for the piglets at 3 than at 4 weeks of age. The impact of weaning age on welfare cannot be ignored, especially when outdoor breeding of pigs is proposed to address welfare concerns of the public.     

Fighting by Kittens and Piglets during Suckling: What Does it Mean?

Newborn kittens and piglets show some notable similarities in suckling‐associated behaviours. Both develop a pattern of teat use in which each member of the litter predominantly occupies one or two particular nipples or teats, both show agonistic behaviour towards littermates during suckling, and both are born with ‘weapons’–kittens with sharp claws and piglets with sharp needle teeth. Traditionally, the differential use of nipples or teats has been thought to be due to differential quality of the mammary glands. However, neither our findings in kittens nor an examination of the literature on piglets support this view. As mammary glands usually are of equal quality and as there are normally more glands than young, there seems little reason for littermates to fight. Furthermore, there is also little evidence that individual performance in suckling contests or use of ‘weapons’ is related to weight gain or to dominance relations. Given the present lack of satisfying adaptive explanations for the seemingly aggressive behaviour and use of weapons by kittens and piglets, we suggest these to be epiphenomena of developmental processes anticipating the use of these behaviours and structures in later adaptive contexts.     

Perinatal development of glucose-6-phosphatase and fructose-1,6-diphosphatase activities in pig liver

The activity of glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase) and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (FDPase) was determined in the homogenate of the liver of 69 pig fetuses during the last third of gestation (80th to 114th day), 47 piglets from birth to 4 weeks old (suckling period) and to slaughter pigs. G6Pase is evident in fetal liver at an early date and raises steadily during gestation. In newborn piglets, the enzyme activity increases rapidly during the first hours of life and remains at this high level during the first week of life. Afterwards the enzyme activity returns to birth level, which exists also in pigs at slaughtering. The activity of FDPase is constant during the fetal period. After birth enzyme activity rises at a lower rate than the G6Pase during the first week of life. This level remains constant during the suckling period and increases thereafter until the time of slaughtering of pigs. The role of hormones in the perinatal development of these enzymes is described. Probably, thyroxine causes the prenatal increase of the activity of both the enzymes. The rapid postnatal rise of G6Pase activity may be induced by the high level of hydrocortisone at parturition, and furthermore, glucagon may have a permissive effect.     

Effects of dietary alpha-ketoglutarate on bacteria profiles in the faeces of lactating sows and their suckling piglets

ABSTRACT

The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of dietary alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG) on the faecal bacteria composition of suckling piglets after supplementation of AKG to the diet of lactating sows. After farrowing, the sows were assigned to either a normal lactation diet (control group, n = 12) or a diet supplemented with 0.25% AKG (AKG group, n = 12) based on body weight (BW) and parity. During the 21-d suckling period, BW and diarrhoea occurrences of piglets were recorded daily, while faeces were sampled weekly from sows and piglets. The levels of pH, ammonia, short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and lactate in the faeces of piglets were determined. In particular, bacteria profiles in faeces of sows and their suckling piglets were examined by Illumina sequencing. The results showed that the AKG diet altered the faecal bacteria composition in sows during the 21-d lactation period, leading to increases (p < 0.05) in the abundances of genera Prevotella, Lactobacillus, Bacteroides and Methanobrevibacter, but decreases (p < 0.05) in the abundances of genera Oscillospira and Dorea. AKG supplement to the sows during lactation indirectly enhanced (p < 0.05) bacterial richness and SCFA levels (especially, acetate) in the faeces of piglets during the 21-d suckling period. It is suggested that maternal AKG supplementation alters the composition of faecal bacteria in the sows, and increases the faecal bacteria richness and acetate levels in the piglets, which might be associated with an enhanced growth performance of piglets.     

Studies on Immunoglobulins and Trypsin Inhibitor in Colostrum and Milk from Sows and in Serum of Their Piglets

The concentrations of IgG, IgM, IgA and the specific sow colostrum trypsin inhibitor (SCTI) were measured by radial immunodiffusion in colostrum and milk samples from sows and in serum samples from their offspring during the suckling period. A clear time dependence was found for all the measured variates in both whey and serum. Statistically significant positive correlations were found between, on the one hand, concentrations of IgG and IgA, but not IgM, in sera from 39 suckling piglets 1 and 3 days old, and, on the other hand, concentrations of the same immunoglobulins and of the trypsin inhibitor in maternal colostrum (n = 7). Multiple regression analyses showed that at day 1 and day 3 the levels of both IgG and IgA in serum samples from the suckling piglets were positively influenced by both the SCTI and the IgG or IgA contents in maternal colostrum.     

Early social isolation alters behavioral and physiological responses to an endotoxin challenge in piglets

Psychosocial stress in the form of maternal deprivation and social isolation during early postnatal life induces persistent alterations in behavioral and physiological mechanisms of adaptation. One consequence may be an increased susceptibility to diseases in later life. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate in domestic piglets the effects of a repeated social isolation (2 h daily from day 3 to day 11 of age) on behavioral, endocrine and immune responses to an endotoxin challenge with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) 1 day or 45 days after the isolation period. Peripheral LPS administration caused serious sickness behavior (somnolence, shivering, vomiting) and provoked profound increases in circulating tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), ACTH and cortisol concentrations. The prior social isolation treatment enhanced signs of sickness and impaired suckling behavior. Early isolated piglets responded to LPS by an increase of shivering on day 12 and by increased vomiting on day 56 compared to controls. Further, there were considerable delays and reductions of time isolated piglets spent suckling on day 12. The repeated isolation stressor diminished TNF-α increases after LPS, whereas stress hormone levels were not significantly affected by isolation treatment. Finally, stronger relationships between signs of sickness and physiological measures were revealed in early isolated piglets. The duration of somnolence in isolated piglets was related to changes of cortisol and TNF-α concentrations, and the highest impact on duration of shivering was found for changes in cortisol and corticosteroid binding globulin levels. The present results suggest a sustained adaptive sensitization of coping with infection by social stress experience during early development in piglets.     

Effects of intermittent suckling on body composition of Iberian piglets weaned at 35 days of age

Piglet body composition at weaning could be a determinant for pig’s viability and may be influenced by factors such as the nutritional management followed during suckling. An experiment was conducted to study whether intermittent suckling (IS) affects body composition at weaning and nutrient and energy retention during a 34-day lactation period in Iberian piglets. Litters were subjected to conventional suckling (CS) or IS (n=10 litters of six piglets per treatment) in two trials. All piglets had ad libitum access to creep feed from day 15 onwards. In IS, piglets were progressively separated from the sow for 6, 8 and 10 h daily during the last week of lactation, whereas in CS piglets had continuous access to their dams. Creep feed intake in litters and BW development of individual piglets were measured throughout the 34-day lactation. Within each litter, both at birth and at weaning (day 35), one piglet was used to assess nutrient retention and body composition by the comparative slaughter approach. During days 29 to 35 of the experiment, daily creep feed intake was greater in IS piglets (IS 124, CS 67 g/piglet, P=0.040), and average daily gain differed significantly between groups (IS 190, CS 150 g/day, P=0.010). BW at weaning was higher in the IS than in the CS piglets (IS 8.19, CS 7.48 kg, P=0.011). Empty-body fat and energy content at weaning were higher in the IS compared with CS litters, as well as fat content in the carcass (P=0.04). The IS treatment did not affect empty-body protein deposition, but significantly increased daily retention of fat, energy, ash and calcium, compared with CS litters (P<0.05). Thus, IS in Iberian piglets seems to enhance feed intake, growth rate and retention of some body components, which may contribute to a higher body fat content at weaning and facilitate the weaning process.