Analysis of the factors that affect the distribution and abundance of three Neobuxbaumia species (Cactaceae) that differ in their degree of rarity

We studied three species of columnar cacti in the genus Neobuxbaumia which differ in their degree of rarity: Neobuxbaumia macrocephala (the rarest), Neobuxbaumia tetetzo (intermediate), and Neobuxbaumia mezcalaensis (the most common). To investigate the ecological factors that limit their distribution and abundance, we surveyed 80 localities within the region of Tehuacan-Cuicatlán, in Central Mexico. At each locality we measured several environmental variables, and the density of the Neobuxbaumia populations present. We used a principal component analysis (PCA) to identify the factors that are associated to the presence/absence of each species. Additionally, we carried out multiple regressions between environmental variables and population density to test whether the variation in these variables was related to changes in abundance. The results show that factors significantly affecting the distribution of these species are mean annual temperature, altitude, rainfall, and soil properties such as texture and organic matter content. N. mezcalaensis reaches maximum population densities of 14,740 plants per ha (average density = 3943 plants per ha) and is associated with localities with relatively abundant rainfall. N. tetetzo shows maximum population densities of 14,060 plants per ha (average = 3070 plants per ha), and is associated with sites located at high latitudes and with high phosphorous content in the soil. The rarest species, N. macrocephala, shows maximum densities of 1180 plants per ha (average = 607 plants per ha) and is associated with localities with high soil calcium content. The distribution of this species is limited to sites with specific values of the environmental variables recorded, conferring it a high habitat specificity which accounts for its rarity.     

Designing better water troughs: 2. Surface area and height,but not depth,influence dairy cows’ preference

Water consumption affects milk production of dairy cows. In a previous study, we found that dairy cows preferred to drink from larger than from smaller troughs and that intake was higher when water was offered in the larger, preferred troughs. In this study, we investigated some of the trough's characteristics that may underlie such preference. The volume of water consumed, time spent drinking and number of sips taken by cows (n = 18) were compared when water was offered in two troughs differing in surface area (1.13 m² or 0.28 m²; experiment 1), height (30 cm or 60 cm; experiment 2) or depth (30 cm or 60 cm; experiment 3). In each experiment, each cow was tested individually for six consecutive days with the troughs randomly placed in each side. In experiment 1, cows took more sips (P < 0.01), spent more time drinking (P < 0.01) and drank more water (P < 0.01) from the trough with larger surface area. In experiment 2, cows took more sips from the higher than from the lower trough (P < 0.02) and showed a tendency to consume more water (P = 0.08) and to spend more time drinking (P = 0.08) from the higher than from the lower trough. Trough depth did not influence any of the variables recorded.     

Molecular distinction of C × R hybrid (Coffea congensis × Coffea canephora) from morphologically resembling male parent using rbcL and matK gene sequences

Interspecific C × R hybrid (Coffea congensis × Coffea canephora) in India is cultivated as mixed population with male parent C. canephora as this species is an efficient pollen donor for enhanced yield. But distinction of C × R hybrid from C. canephora in old plantation is difficult due to varying plant sizes of C × R hybrid and often resembles with C. canephora. C × R hybrid cultivated under different agroclimatic conditions show distinct vegetative growth pattern with varying yields. Thus development of DNA marker for identification of C × R hybrid is important for clonal propagation and seed preparation from selective individuals. In this study, two DNA bar coding loci of chloroplast genome (rbcL and matK) of parents, F1 hybrid and its back cross progeny were partially sequenced to identify SNPs as DNA marker for distinction of C × R hybrid from C. canephora. Seven SNPs in the matK gene sequence and three nucleotides in the rbcL gene sequence were identified as DNA markers for the genetic identity of C. congensis. These SNPs were found in F1 and advanced progenies of C × R hybrid due to maternal inheritance. Large number of samples of C × R hybrids with varying morphological features revealed no polymorphism among C × R hybrid and C. congensis. Thus, the SNPs in C. congensis can be used as DNA markers for precise identification of C × R hybrid for production of clones besides tagging the chloroplast inheritance in advanced progenies.     

Noninvasive genetic assessment of brown bear population structure in Bulgarian mountain regions

The Balkans are one of the last large refugia for brown bear (Ursus arctos) populations in Europe, and Bulgaria, in particular, contains relatively large areas of suitable brown bear habitat and a potential population of more than 600 individuals. Despite this, the majority of brown bear research remains focused on bear populations in Central and Western Europe. We provide the first assessment of genetic population structure of brown bears in Bulgaria by analysing tissue samples (n = 16) as well as samples collected with noninvasive genetic methods, including hair and faecal samples (n = 189 and n = 163, respectively). Sequence analysis of a 248 base pair fragment of the mitochondrial control region showed that two highly divergent mitochondrial European brown bear lineages form a contact zone in central Bulgaria. Furthermore, the analysis of 13 polymorphic microsatellite markers identified 136 individuals and found substantial genetic variability (H_e = 0.74; N_A = 8.9). The combination of both genetic markers revealed the presence of weak genetic substructure in the study area with considerable degrees of genetic admixture and the likely presence of migration corridors between the two subpopulation in the Rhodope Mountains and Stara Planina as evidenced from the genetic detection of two male long-distance dispersers. A detailed assessment from densely collected samples in the Rhodope Mountains resulted in a population size estimate of 315 (95% CI = 206–334) individuals, indicating that not all available habitat is presently occupied by bears in this region. Efficient management plans should focus on preserving connectivity of suitable habitats in order to maintain gene flow between the two Bulgarian brown bear subpopulations.     

Growth and age at sexual maturity of South American sea lions

The average age at sexual maturity (ASM) is an important parameter for evaluating the reproductive potential or status of a population. South American sea lions, Otaria flavescens in Patagonia (Argentina) were exploited and reduced to less than 10% of pre-exploitation numbers. At present, the population is recovering at a rate of 6%. In this paper, we studied growth and age at sexual maturity of South American sea lions in the south-western south Atlantic by examining 219 individuals (females and males) collected between 1989-2008. Individuals were aged by counting growth layer groups in tooth sections, standard body length was measured and male and female reproductive organs were examined macroscopically and histologically to establish individual sexual maturity. Maximum recorded length for males and females was 264 cm and 200 cm, respectively, and maximum ages 19 and 21 yrs. ASM defined as the age where 50% of females are mature, was estimated at 4.8±0.5 years old, corresponding to a mean SL of 147 cm, about 81% of their asymptotic length. First observed ovulation occurred during the 4th year, first birth may occur between 4 and 5 years old. Males physiologically mature between 4-6 years, but the size of the testes shows that all males became sexually mature by the age of 9 years when they reach a mean SL of 212 cm, about 86% of their asymptotic body length. The present information on ASM and growth of O. flavescens will improve the development of population dynamics models, to investigate the impact of recovering sea lions populations on its marine environment, as well as its trophic interactions with commercial fisheries.     

Association of a polymorphism of the apolipoprotein E gene with chronic kidney disease in Japanese individuals with metabolic syndrome

The purpose of the present study was to identify genetic variants that confer susceptibility to chronic kidney disease (CKD) in Japanese individuals with metabolic syndrome. The study population comprised 2150 Japanese individuals with metabolic syndrome, including 411 subjects with CKD [estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) < 50 mL/min/1.73m²] and 1739 controls (eGFR ≥ 60 mL/min/1.73m²). The genotypes for 100 polymorphisms of 80 candidate genes were determined. The chi-square test, multivariable logistic regression analysis with adjustment for covariates, as well as a stepwise forward selection procedure revealed that nine polymorphisms of APOE, ABCA1, PTGS1, TNF, CPB2, AGTR1, OR13G1, and GNB3 were associated (P < 0.05) with the prevalence of CKD. Among these polymorphisms, the ? 219G → T polymorphism of APOE (rs405509) was most significantly associated with CKD in Japanese individuals with metabolic syndrome.     

Brown bear reintroduction in the Southern Alps: To what extent are expectations being met?

Large carnivores, such as brown bears (Ursus arctos), are flagship species for the conservation of biodiversity and their reintroduction represents a strong challenge. However, the results of reintroductions have only recently been documented in the literature. Given the global decline of large carnivores, documenting the results of such attempts is crucial for future conservation management. Here we examined the reintroduction of brown bears into the Italian Alps. The majority of bears released (10 individuals) adapted well to the release area and this resulted in the increase of the brown bear population. At the end of 2012, the area with a stable presence of females was around 1250 km² (minimum density = 3 bear/100 km²). Between 2002 and 2012, 34 reproductive events occurred and a total of 74 cubs were born, thus reaching a minimum population size of 47 individuals. No less than 21 young males dispersed into adjacent Italian regions or into other countries, such as Switzerland, Austria, and Germany. However, despite a high mortality rate and at least two cases of illegal killing reported in the last 2 years (2013 and 2014), a remarkable population growth rate (current level of 15.6%) has been observed.The damages correlated with bear population size (F = 17.922, p < 0.01) were primarily inflicted on beehives (39%) and livestock (26%), with an economic relevance of € 41,374 per year for compensation and € 23,527 per year for prevention. The only case of injury to humans ever since the beginning of the project was recorded in 2014, when a female defending her two cubs inflicted minor physical injuries to a man. And yet, public opinion changed radically, from a widespread acceptance of bears at the beginning of the project to an opposition to their presence, the increase of their population, and the new translocations aiming at replacing problem bears that had previously been removed. According to the present trend, the population may reach a range of 60–94 individuals in 2017. Therefore, a proper management of problem bears should be considered a key factor for the restoration and improvement of the social acceptance of this species.     

Eruption patterns of permanent front teeth as an indicator of performance in roe deer

In most species of vertebrates, teeth play a central role in the long-term performance of individuals. However, patterns of tooth development have been little investigated as an indicator of animal performance. We filled this gap using data collected during long-term capture-mark-recapture monitoring of 1152 roe deer fawns at Chizé, western France. This population fluctuated greatly in size during the 27 years of monitoring, offering a unique opportunity to assess how the eruption patterns of front teeth perform as indicator of animal performance. We used three indices of the eruption of permanent front teeth, the simplest being whether or not incisor I₂ has erupted, and the most complex being a 12-level factor distinguishing the different stages of tooth eruption. We also assessed the relevance of these indices as compared to fawn body mass, a widely used indicator of animal performance of deer populations. Dental indices and body mass were positively correlated (all r > 0.62). Similarly to body mass, all indices based on tooth eruption patterns responded to changes of population size and can be reliably used to assess the relationship between roe deer and their environment. We found a linear decrease in body mass with increasing population size (r² = 0.54) and a simultaneous delay in tooth development (r² = 0.48–0.55 from the least to the most accurate indicator). However, tooth development would be not further delayed in years with the highest densities (>15 adult roe deer/100 ha). A path analysis supported the population density effect on tooth eruption patterns being mainly determined by the effect of population size on body mass. Our study provides managers with simple indices (e.g., presence-absence of I₂) that provide a technically more easy way to standardize measurements of deer density-dependent responses over large geographical and temporal scales than would be possible with body mass.     

The influence of a TNF gene polymorphism on the severity of rheumatoid arthritis in the Brazilian Amazon

PurposeThe aim of this study was to investigate the influence of the TNF -308 G/A polymorphism in the promoter region of the tumor necrosis factor-α gene on the susceptibility and severity of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in individuals from the Brazilian Amazon.MethodsA total of 323 individuals—192 healthy controls without arthritis and 131 individuals suffering from arthritis—were genotyped for this polymorphism using a methodology based on PCR-RFLP.ResultsThe frequency of the A allele (TNF2) in rheumatoid arthritis sufferers was not significantly higher than in the controls (p = 0.926; OR = 0.97; confidence interval 0.54–1.76). However, using a logistic regression model, when the patients were stratified according to whether the manifestations were preponderantly articular or systemic, there was a strong association between the TNF2 allele and systemic arthritis (p = 0.001; OR = 5.89; confidence interval = 1.98–17.5) as well as the use of anti-TNF immunotherapy (p = 0.023; OR = 1.10; confidence interval = 1.00–1.14). The main factors that were found to influence the risk of extra-articular disease were age greater than or equal to 60 years (p = 0.008; OR = 4.06; confidence interval = 1.45–11.38), disease duration greater than 10 years (p = 0.031; OR = 3.10; confidence interval = 1.11–8.63) and positive rheumatoid factor (p = 0.035; OR = 2.07; confidence interval = 1.05–4.09).ConclusionsThese results suggest that the TNF2 allele is associated with the more serious forms of the disease in individuals from the Brazilian Amazon but not with a risk for developing RA.     

Dynamic response of woody vegetation on fencing protection in semi-arid areas; Case study: Pilot exclosure on the Firmihin Plateau,Socotra Island

Woody vegetation dynamics and Dracaena cinnabari regeneration have been studied for five years in the conditions of Socotra Island. Woody plants were measured regularly inside and outside the exclosure area, and the growth and survival of D. cinnabari seedlings were observed. In the exclosure of about 1000 m² a total of 49 species were identified, including 23 endemics, growing in the average density of 3.82 specimens per m². The fenced area was overgrown relatively rapidly by dense grass cover – reaching approx. 2.7 t/ha. Species growth dynamics inside and outside the exclosure shows that grazing had a marked impact, leading to the elimination of trees and shrubs. All grazed species grew noticeably in the exclosure, in the average of 50 cm in 5 years. D. cinnabari as the dominant flagship species of Socotra has been studied with regards to regeneration dynamics. Observations indicate that probability of its seedlings survival increases with their age. No seedlings germinated from the seeds sown in the experiment, however, outplanted seedlings performed relatively well. Field observations show that D. cinnabari seed germination is triggered when the seed reaches a protected micro-habitat with a developed humus layer and high relative humidity in the soil lasts for at least two days.     

Genetic diversity and population structure in Vallisneria spinulosa (Hydrocharitaceae)

Vallisneria spinulosa is a dominant submerged macrophyte in lakes of the middle–lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Allozyme variation, clonal diversity and population genetic structure were investigated for a total of 396 individuals sampled from 10 extant populations. V. spinulosa maintained high levels of genetic variation both at the species (P = 46.2, A = 1.69, H_e = 0.23) and at the population level (P = 46.2, A = 1.58, H_e = 0.21). Although aquatic macrophytes commonly exhibit low genetic variation within populations, the obligately outcrossing mating system of V. spinulosa and pervasive gene flow likely account for the high levels of diversity maintained within populations. All V. spinulosa populations contained high clonal diversity with a mean proportion of distinguishable genotypes of 0.57 and a mean Simpson's diversity index of 0.95, indicating that populations were founded sexually or that successful seedling recruitment occurred after initial colonization. Partitioning of genetic diversity revealed a surprisingly low population differentiation (G_ST = 0.06) as compared to other hydrophilous angiosperms. No evidence of isolation-by-distance was found (r = 0.056, P = 0.312), suggesting that gene flow was not restricted geographically. The UPGMA cluster analysis revealed that several widely separated populations grouped together, suggesting long-distance gene flow among populations. The high vagility of V. spinulosa and extensive hydrologic connectivity among populations have facilitated long-distance gene flow and resulted in the pattern of population genetic structure in V. spinulosa.     

The age of monumental olive trees (Olea europaea) in northeastern Spain

Trees can reach ages that in some cases amount to thousands of years. In the Mediterranean region, olive trees (Olea europaea) have traditionally been considered a particularly long-lived species. The main objective of this study was to assess the age of large olive trees considered to be millenarian and classified as monumental trees in northeastern Spain. We extracted cores of 14 individuals and obtained 8 sections of trees which had already been cut in the area where the largest olive trees in the northeastern Iberian Peninsula are found. The age of the sampled olive trees was assessed by counting the number of annual growth rings. Tree rings did not cross-date well, neither within nor between individuals, but boundaries between likely annual rings were clearly distinct. We found a linear relationship between DBH and tree age (in years) (Age = 2.11 × diameter(cm) + 88.93, R² = 0.80), which was used to estimate the age of unsampled olive trees. The maximum estimated age (627 ± 110 years) is among the greatest ages reported for olive trees around the world (700 years) and among the oldest trees in Mediterranean ecosystems.     

Evening salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase at 14 months and neurodevelopment at 4 years: Sex differences

Stress system activity in early life can have long-term effects on neurodevelopment. The main aim of this study was to assess the association of child evening salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase basal levels at 14 months of age with longer-term neuropsychological development at 4 years in a low-risk population-based birth cohort derived from the INMA (Environment and Childhood) project in Spain. We included 186 parent-children pairs with information on both stress system activity and neurodevelopment. Both stress markers at 14 months of age showed an association with neuropsychological development at 4 years. Salivary cortisol showed a sex-specific pattern of association. In girls, cortisol levels at 14 months were negatively associated with cognitive development [long-term declarative memory (β = − 17.8, p = 0.028; 95% CI = − 33.2 to − 2.5); executive function (β = − 9.8, p = 0.08; 95% CI = − 21 to 1)] and gross motor development (β = − 13; p = 0.022; 95% CI = − 24 to − 2), whereas in boys cortisol levels were negatively associated with socioemotional development [autistic-like behaviours: Incidence Rate Ratio (IRR) = 1.6, p = 0.039; 95% CI = 1.01 to 2.41]. Salivary alpha-amylase was positively associated with socioemotional development in boys only [social competence (β = 2.11, p = 0.013; 95% CI = 0.47 to 3.72), autistic-like behaviours (IRR = 0.93, p = 0.042; 95% CI = 0.87 to 0.99) and hyperactivity symptoms (IRR = 0.81, p = 0.021; 95% CI = 0.69 to 0.97)]. These results suggest that stress system activity in early life is associated with longer-term neurodevelopment and that sex is an important factor in this relationship.     

Trapping of Saker Falcon Falco cherrug and Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus in Saudi Arabia: Implications for biodiversity conservation

The numbers of Falco cherrug and Falco peregrinus trapped during their migration over the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) were investigated from published reports and through interviews with well-known trappers and dealers over several years (1989–2013). The number of trapped individuals increased for both species over a 23 year period, which is probably related to an enhanced trapping effort. Time series analysis suggests that the number of Saker Falcons being trapped is likely to be stable with annual fluctuations in the coming ten-year period, whereas the number of trapped Peregrine Falcons will probably decline with a small fluctuation initially. Using the population viability analysis suggests a high extinction rate for the Saker Falcon population migrating through KSA during the coming 10 and 20 years; whereas Peregrine Falcons probably take more than 100 years to reach the extinction threshold. However, the increase in the trapping period, especially in the spring, that has been observed during the last five years could increase the number of falcons trapped in the future. As both falcon species are migratory, implementing conservation actions across all range states is important to ensure a favourable conservation status for the Saker and Peregrine Falcons. Both species will benefit through the implementation of the Global Action Plan (GAP), developed by the Saker Falcon Task Force.     

Long-term adaptations of a migratory bird (Little Tern Sternula albifrons) to quasi-natural flooding disturbance

Population size of migratory birds responds to various types of environmental factors, which affect different stages of bird population. In the current study, we analyzed a long-term avifauna monitoring database to investigate population changes in the migratory bird Little Tern, Sternula albifrons, with respect to a quasi-natural disturbance, flooding, induced by a regional characteristic climate pattern, the Korean Monsoon (KM), in the Nakdong River Estuary of South Korea. We scrutinized the time-delayed influence by means of wavelet transformation and year-to-year comparison. Little Tern individuals started to grow in April, and reached its maximum generally in May or June, and an abrupt decrease of individual number was observed after KM occurred. Sequential time-series analysis based on wavelet transformation revealed that the changing pattern of the population size of Little Tern in the estuary was linked to the previous year's flooding (a 9- to 10-month delay), which is regarded as the time difference between Little Tern breeding season and previous KM period. Stronger flooding waters during KM season expelled comparably more individuals of Little Tern from the estuary (r² = 0.595; p < 0.05; n = 9), and the more the individuals left, the smaller the bird arrived at the estuary in the next year. Further examination revealed that earlier initiation and longer duration of KM in year_t − 1 negatively affected the newly arriving Little Tern individuals in the current year (i.e., year_t; r² = 0.809 for impact of KM onset, r² = 0.909 for impact of KM duration; n = 10, respectively; p < 0.005). The Little Tern population gradually increased when summer flooding was not strong in the previous successive years, from which we concluded that the population of the migratory bird Little Tern tends to adapt to quasi-natural disturbance (flooding) to maintain their population size.     

Genetic variability and size estimates of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) population in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem

Even though recent years have shown a slow recovery of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) populations from their previous lows, the species is still highly endangered in most parts of its European distribution range. Surprisingly, only a few studies have so far assessed the species’ genetic variability and population density, and they have mostly been carried out only in small territories. In Germany, most otter populations live in protected areas whose management urgently needs data on population sizes and densities as well as on genetic variability of the species under their custody. Thus, we analyzed genetic variability and assessed size and density of the otter population in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem, an area that had not been included in the few previous molecular studies. The study area comprised of 1500 km², divided into fifteen squares of 10 × 10 km², each of which was sampled in two collection periods. Overall we collected 261 fecal samples (spraints), of which 60 (23%) could be genotyped at least at eight microsatellite loci, yielding 38 distinct otter genotypes. The low genotyping success rate was the result of high ambient temperature at the time of sampling rather than that of high humidity. The population did not show signs of a past bottleneck, indicating a small yet stable population size. Population size was estimated to be 118 (CI_95% 64–163) individuals, with a mean density of 1 animal per 8.5 km² or 3.1 km river length. Our results imply that hunting, requested by local fishpond owners, should remain banned to avoid a decline in (effective) population size.     

Indirect organogenesis from various explants of Hildegardia populifolia (Roxb.) Schott & Endl. – A threatened tree species from Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu,India

Hildegardia species are an important resource for fiber industry. This investigation was conducted to develop a plant regeneration protocol for Hildegardia populifolia (Roxb.) Schott & Endl. via indirect organogenesis Callus was obtained from leaf, internode and petiole explants, among these explants internode explant gave best result on MS medium supplemented with different concentrations of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D). The highest percentage (100%) of regeneration was obtained with benzyladenine (BA) (2.0 mg/l) + indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) (0.1 mg/l) + glutamine (25 mg/l) + thidiazuron (TDZ) (0.5 mg/l) from internode explants. Shootlets were highly rooted on MS medium supplemented with 3.0 mg/l indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). In vitro rooted seedlings were successfully acclimatized. This in vitro regeneration system will facilitate further development of reliable procedures for this genus.     

The dinosaur tracksite of Loulle (early Kimmeridgian; Jura,France)

More than 1500 sauropod and theropod tracks have been discovered and excavated on the floor of a disused 3800 m² quarry, near the village of Loulle (French Jura). These levels correspond to a tidal-flat environment, from intertidal to supratidal zone, dated from the earliest Kimmeridgian (∼157 M.a.). Eighteen sauropod trackways have been recognized, ranging from 3.8 m to 51.5 m in length. These trackways do not correspond to a unique herd passage, because trackways are diversely oriented, most of them are crossing others and prints are more or less deeply marked, depending of different stages of substratum competence. According to the trackway gauges, the three types (narrow-, medium and wide-gauge) are represented. Some trackways could be referred to the ichnogenus Brontopodus Farlow et al., 1989, and others to Parabrontopodus Lockley et al., 1994a. Based on footprint size, the body-sizes of these 18 sauropod trackways range from tiny (Pes Length < 25 cm) to large individuals (PL > 75 cm), showing a regular continuum of sizes. Several biometrical ratios classically used in sauropod ichnology appear to be closely related to size (e.g., the smallest individuals apparently moved faster than the largest; large individuals are all narrow-gauge while small individuals are all wide-gauge; large specimens are characterized by a high heteropody ratio when the smallest show a low heteropody ratio). Associated with these sauropod trackways, four theropod trackways have also been recorded. Three small to medium-sized theropod are referred to the ichnogenus Carmelopodus Lockley et al., 1998a, while a large individual (PL = 77 cm) is tentatively referred to Megalosauripus Lessertisseur, 1955.     

Photobiomodulation of human adipose-derived stem cells using 810 nm and 980 nm lasers operates via different mechanisms of action

Photobiomodulation (PBM) using red or near-infrared (NIR) light has been used to stimulate the proliferation and differentiation of adipose-derived stem cells. The use of NIR wavelengths such as 810 nm is reasonably well accepted to stimulate mitochondrial activity and ATP production via absorption of photons by cytochrome c oxidase. However, the mechanism of action of 980 nm is less well understood. Here we study the effects of both wavelengths (810 nm and 980 nm) on adipose-derived stem cells in vitro. Both wavelengths showed a biphasic dose response, but 810 nm had a peak dose response at 3 J/cm² for stimulation of proliferation at 24 h, while the peak dose for 980 nm was 10–100 times lower at 0.03 or 0.3 J/cm². Moreover, 980 nm (but not 810 nm) increased cytosolic calcium while decreasing mitochondrial calcium. The effects of 980 nm could be blocked by calcium channel blockers (capsazepine for TRPV1 and SKF96365 for TRPC channels), which had no effect on 810 nm. To test the hypothesis that the chromophore for 980 nm was intracellular water, which could possibly form a microscopic temperature gradient upon laser irradiation, we added cold medium (4 °C) during the light exposure, or pre-incubated the cells at 42 °C, both of which abrogated the effect of 980 nm but not 810 nm. We conclude that 980 nm affects temperature-gated calcium ion channels, while 810 nm largely affects mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase.