Environmental and Kinetic Parameters for Cr(VI) Bioreduction by a Bacterial Monoculture Purified from Cr(VI)-Resistant Consortium

Hexavalent chromium, Cr(VI), is toxic to living systems. Widespread contamination of water and soil by Cr(VI) present a serious public health problem. Chromium-resistant bacteria can reduce and detoxify Cr(VI). Twelve bacteria resistant to high concentrations of Cr(VI) were isolated from soil enrichment cultures. Environmental parameters and kinetic parameters of Cr(VI) bioreduction by one monoculture isolate, identified by 16S rRNA gene sequence as Bacillus sp. PB2, were studied. The optimal temperature for growth and Cr(VI) reduction was 35 degrees C. The isolate grew luxuriantly and substantially reduced Cr(VI) at initial pH 7.5 to 9. Maximal Cr(VI) bioreduction occurred at initial pH 8.0. Substantial Cr(VI) bioreduction was observed in salt media, but removal efficiency was inversely related to salt concentration (1-9%). Michaelis-Menten hyperbolic equation and the Lineweaver-Burk double reciprocal plot were comparatively employed to determine the k (m) and V (max) of Cr(VI) bioreduction. A k (m) of 82.5 microg mL(-1) and V (max) of 7.78 microg mL(-1) h(-1) were calculated by nonlinear regression analysis of the hyperbola curve. Linear regression analysis of the double reciprocal plot revealed k (m) and V (max) of 80.9 microg mL(-1) and 10.6 microg mL(-1) h(-1), respectively. Time course studies displayed about 90% reduction of Cr(VI) at an initial concentration of 8,000 microg L(-1) in 8 h, with an estimated t (1/2) of 4 h. Data from time course analysis of the rate of Cr(VI) bioreduction fitted zero-order model, and the kinetic constant k was calculated to be 840 microg L(-1) h(-1). The monoculture isolate, Bacillus sp. PB2, strongly reduces Cr(VI) and could be used for bioremediation of Cr(VI)-contaminated aquatic and terrestrial environments.     

中国典型植被类型NDVI动态变化与气温、降水变化的敏感性分析

 利用1983～1992年覆盖全国范围的、多时相的、NOAA／AVHRR的NDVI数字影像,结合我国160个基本标准气象站逐月的气温、降水资料,对10年来中国主要植被类型的遥感特征参数NDVI的动态变化与同期气温、降水变化的关系进行了分析。结果显示：就全国而言,从北到南,NDVI的变化与气候条件变化的相关系数逐渐降低;从东南到西北,NDVI的变化与气候条件变化的相关系数逐渐增加。     

拟南芥六个新的small RNAs 的克隆和功能预测

以模式植物拟南芥为例, 建立了一种克隆small RNA 分子的技术平台, 为今后开展small RNA 分子的生物学功能研究提供技术支撑。通过用抗病信号分子水杨酸(SA) 处理拟南芥叶片后, 进行small RNA 分子群体的分离与接头连接、PCR 扩增、T - 载体克隆与检测、测序分析和生物信息学分析等一系列实验, 成功地克隆了一些small RNAs, 并对其表达和功能进行了分析。     

拟南芥六个新的small RNAs的克隆和功能预测

以模式植物拟南芥为例,建立了一种克隆small RNA分子的技术平台,为今后开展small RNA分子的生物学功能研究提供技术支撑.通过用抗病信号分子水杨酸(SA)处理拟南芥叶片后,进行small RNA分子群体的分离与接头连接、PCR扩增、T-载体克隆与检测、测序分析和生物信息学分析等一系列实验,成功地克隆了一些small RNAs.并对其表达和功能进行了分析.     

SPINE-D: Accurate Prediction of Short and Long Disordered Regions by a Single Neural-Network Based Method

Abstract

Short and long disordered regions of proteins have different preference for different amino acid residues. Different methods often have to be trained to predict them separately. In this study, we developed a single neural-network-based technique called SPINE-D that makes a three-state prediction first (ordered residues and disordered residues in short and long disordered regions) and reduces it into a two-state prediction afterwards. SPINE-D was tested on various sets composed of different combinations of Disprot annotated proteins and proteins directly from the PDB annotated for disorder by missing coordinates in X-ray determined structures. While disorder annotations are different according to Disprot and X-ray approaches, SPINE-D's prediction accuracy and ability to predict disorder are relatively independent of how the method was trained and what type of annotation was employed but strongly depend on the balance in the relative populations of ordered and disordered residues in short and long disordered regions in the test set. With greater than 85% overall specificity for detecting residues in both short and long disordered regions, the residues in long disordered regions are easier to predict at 81% sensitivity in a balanced test dataset with 56.5% ordered residues but more challenging (at 65% sensitivity) in a test dataset with 90% ordered residues. Compared to eleven other methods, SPINE-D yields the highest area under the curve (AUC), the highest Mathews correlation coefficient for residue-based prediction, and the lowest mean square error in predicting disorder contents of proteins for an independent test set with 329 proteins. In particular, SPINE-D is comparable to a meta predictor in predicting disordered residues in long disordered regions and superior in short disordered regions. SPINE-D participated in CASP 9 blind prediction and is one of the top servers according to the official ranking. In addition, SPINE-D was examined for prediction of functional molecular recognition motifs in several case studies. The server and databases are available at http://sparks.informatics.iupui.edu/.     

Seasonal Dynamics of Prokaryotic Abundance and Activities in Relation to Environmental Parameters in a Transitional Aquatic Ecosystem (Cape Peloro,Italy)

This study examines the effects of temporal changes on microbial parameters in a brackish aquatic ecosystem. To this aim, the abundances of prokaryotes and vibrios together with the rates of enzymatic hydrolysis of proteins by leucine aminopeptidase (LAP), polysaccharides by β-glucosidase (GLU) and organic phosphates by alkaline phosphatase (AP), heterotrophic prokaryotic production (HPP), respiration (R), were seasonally investigated, during a 2-year period in the coastal area of Cape Peloro (Messina, Italy), constituted by two brackish lakes (Faro and Ganzirri). In addition, physical and chemical parameters (temperature, salinity, nutrients) and particulate organic carbon and nitrogen (POC, PN) were measured. The influence of multiple factors on prokaryotic abundances and activities was analysed. The results showed that Cape Peloro area is characterised by high seasonal variability of the microbial parameters that is higher than the spatial one. Combined changes in particulate matter and temperature (T), could explain the variability in vibrios abundance, GLU and R activities in both lakes, indicating a direct stimulation of the warm season on the heterotrophic prokaryotic metabolism. Positive correlations between T (from 13.3 to 29.6 °C) and HPP, LAP, AP, POC, PN are also observed in Ganzirri Lake. Moreover, the trophic status index and most of the microbial parameters show significant seasonal differences. This study demonstrates that vibrios abundance and microbial activities are responsive to the spatial and seasonal changes of examined area. The combined effects of temperature and trophic conditions on the microbial parameters lead us to suggest their use as potential indicators of the prokaryotic response to climate changes in temperate brackish areas.     

The Response of Human Thermal Sensation and Its Prediction to Temperature Step-Change (Cool-Neutral-Cool)

This paper reports on studies of the effect of temperature step-change (between a cool and a neutral environment) on human thermal sensation and skin temperature. Experiments with three temperature conditions were carried out in a climate chamber during the period in winter. Twelve subjects participated in the experiments simulating moving inside and outside of rooms or cabins with air conditioning. Skin temperatures and thermal sensation were recorded. Results showed overshoot and asymmetry of TSV due to the step-change. Skin temperature changed immediately when subjects entered a new environment. When moving into a neutral environment from cool, dynamic thermal sensation was in the thermal comfort zone and overshoot was not obvious. Air-conditioning in a transitional area should be considered to limit temperature difference to not more than 5°C to decrease the unacceptability of temperature step-change. The linear relationship between thermal sensation and skin temperature or gradient of skin temperature does not apply in a step-change environment. There is a significant linear correlation between TSV and Q_loss in the transient environment. Heat loss from the human skin surface can be used to predict dynamic thermal sensation instead of the heat transfer of the whole human body.     

Temperature regulation by evaporative cooling in a desert grasshopper, Calliptamus barbarus (Ramme, 1951)

1. 1. We examined the desert-dwelling grasshopper, Calliptamus barbarus, to determine whether it used evaporative cooling, and if differences existed in the use of evaporative cooling between the small males and larger females. Male C. barbarus are the smallest grasshoppers tested for their use of evaporative cooling.

2. 2. Calliptamus barbarus use evaporative cooling at high ambient temperatures to keep their body temperature below lethal levels. This has been shown in insects such as cicadas, bees and other grasshoppers. Maximal water loss rates for C. barbarus are similar (8–10% of body mass per hour) to those of other grasshoppers.

3. 3. Male C. barbarus weigh 370 mg on average, and are 20% of the females' mass. At low ambient temperatures males evaporated 13.31 ± 1.14 mg water/h (n = 12), a similar rate to that in females, who evaporated 17.53 ± 2.03 mg water/h (n = 29), but a considerably greater fraction of body mass per unit time. At high ambient temperatures, the males lost less in absolute terms, but a similar amount relative to body mass. The differences are partially accounted for by scaling effects, but for the most part, the reasons for these differences are unclear. They may be linked to differences in ventilatory patterns between males and females or differences in cuticular permeability, the two major pathways of water loss in insects.

     

Environmental metabolomics: a SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats)

Metabolomic approaches have the potential to make an exceptional contribution to understanding how chemicals and other environmental stressors can affect both human and environmental health. However, the application of metabolomics to environmental exposures, although getting underway, has not yet been extensively explored. This review will use a SWOT analysis model to discuss some of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats that are apparent to an investigator venturing into this relatively new field. SWOT has been used extensively in business settings to uncover new outlooks and identify problems that would impede progress. The field of environmental metabolomics provides great opportunities for discovery, and this is recognized by a high level of interest in potential applications. However, understanding the biological consequence of environmental exposures can be confounded by inter- and intra-individual differences. Metabolomic profiles can yield a plethora of data, the interpretation of which is complex and still being evaluated and researched. The development of the field will depend on the availability of technologies for data handling and that permit ready access metabolomic databases. Understanding the relevance of metabolomic endpoints to organism health vs adaptation vs variation is an important step in understanding what constitutes a substantive environmental threat. Metabolomic applications in reproductive research are discussed. Overall, the development of a comprehensive mechanistic-based interpretation of metabolomic changes offers the possibility of providing information that will significantly contribute to the protection of human health and the environment.     

Environmental Effects on Specific Rate of Photosynthesis in Small Fertilized Lakes (North-west of the USSR)

From 1975 to 1981, 136 diurnal values of P/B coefficients for the phytoplankton over the water-column and 22 seasonal ones were obtained in 8 shallow fertilized lakes. A distinct direct correlation was found between the specific rate of photosynthesis and the temperature during the summer-autumn season. In spring, the correlation was not so distinct; this period is characterized by higher photosynthetic activity of the phytoplankton due to a number of conditions favouring the development of algae: enrichment of water with nutrients, high daylight factor, and low biomasses in young populations of algae. An inverse correlation was found between the specific rate of photosynthesis and the phytoplankton biomass. The data obtained show that the introduction of nitrogen-phosphorus fertilizers into the lakes (in the absence of unfavourable factors) greatly increases the daily P/B coefficients. The specific rate of photosynthesis and the morphometry of lakes were found to be correlated directly in small (up to 50 ha) lakes.     

拟南芥高温诱导组织坏死突变体(eil)的鉴定分析

eil是新发现的高温诱导叶片出斑的拟南芥突变体,遗传分析表明该突变体是核遗传单基因隐性突变的纯合体。对野生型和突变体H2O2含量和组织染色的分析结果表明,在突变体表型出现前就有H2O2的积累;突变体幼苗生长在含有DPI[NAD(P)H氧化酶抑制剂]的培养基中,高温条件下没有观察到突变体叶片出斑。实验结果表明拟南芥EIL基因功能与氧爆发有关,氧爆发引起了eil细胞死亡,EIL是负调氧爆发的基因。     

Accurate Quantification of Microorganisms in PCR-Inhibiting Environmental DNA Extracts by a Novel Internal Amplification Control Approach Using Biotrove OpenArrays

PCR-based detection assays are prone to inhibition by substances present in environmental samples, thereby potentially leading to inaccurate target quantification or false-negative results. Internal amplification controls (IACs) have been developed to help alleviate this problem but are generally applied in a single concentration, thereby yielding less-than-optimal results across the wide range of microbial gene target concentrations possible in environmental samples (J. Hoorfar, B. Malorny, A. Abdulmawjood, N. Cook, M. Wagner, and P. Fach, J. Clin. Microbiol. 42:1863-1868, 2004). Increasing the number of IACs for each quantitative PCR (qPCR) sample individually, however, typically reduces sensitivity and, more importantly, the reliability of quantification. Fortunately, current advances in high-throughput qPCR platforms offer the possibility of multiple reactions for a single sample simultaneously, thereby allowing the implementation of more than one IAC concentration per sample. Here, we describe the development of a novel IAC approach that is specifically designed for the state-of-the-art Biotrove OpenArray platform. Different IAC targets were applied at a range of concentrations, yielding a calibration IAC curve for each individual DNA sample. The developed IACs were optimized, tested, and validated by using more than 5,000 unique qPCR amplifications, allowing accurate quantification of microorganisms when applied to soil DNA extracts containing various levels of PCR-inhibiting compounds. To our knowledge, this is the first study using a suite of IACs at different target concentrations to monitor PCR inhibition across a wide target range, thereby allowing reliable and accurate quantification of microorganisms in PCR-inhibiting DNA extracts. The developed IAC is ideally suited for high-throughput screenings of, for example, ecological and agricultural samples on next-generation qPCR platforms.Real-time PCR-based nucleic acid amplification is currently the most commonly used strategy for the quantification of microorganisms and specific gene expression in environmental samples. Such PCR-based nucleic acid amplification is sensitive, accurate, and relatively fast and allows the detection, cultivation-independent identification, and quantification of microorganisms.Despite the advantages of PCR-based assays, one major drawback is potential inhibition of the amplification reaction by compounds that are often coextracted with nucleic acids from the sample matrix (9, 14, 26, 30). Therefore, much research has been directed toward the development of optimized DNA extraction protocols for difficult environmental samples (1, 2, 8, 18, 21, 23, 24, 27, 31, 32). Nevertheless, coextraction of PCR-inhibiting compounds often cannot be completely prevented, thereby potentially leading to false-negative results (4, 5, 7, 13). Moreover, the occurrence of partial PCR inhibition can lead to inaccurate target quantification, thereby underestimating the true number of assayed targets present in the sample (26).A straightforward approach to detect PCR inhibition is the inclusion of an internal amplification control (IAC) (6, 7, 16, 28). An IAC is a nontarget DNA sequence that is coamplified with the target under the same reaction conditions and in the same reaction tube. Most currently used IACs can be divided into two distinct groups: competitive and noncompetitive IACs (7). In competitive IACs, the target and IAC are amplified with the same primer set. In noncompetitive IACs, both the target and IAC are amplified with different primer sets (7). In such strategies, however, competition between the IAC and the target DNA for primers (competitive IAC), nucleotides, and polymerase enzymes (competitive and noncompetitive IAC) can occur (7, 11, 12). Although the absence or presence of a target (qualitative detection) can usually be determined unambiguously after proper optimization via both IAC strategies, the competition for reaction components makes accurate quantification problematic. Therefore, to allow accurate adjustments to quantitative data in the case of partial PCR inhibition, separate reactions for each target and (noncompetitive) IAC should be performed. A drawback of this approach is the resulting dramatic increase in the number of reactions that have to be performed, which is of particular concern when large-scale screening of samples is required or in cases where only a small amount of template DNA is available.A solution to this problem was offered by the recent development of next-generation quantitative PCR (qPCR) platforms like the Biotrove OpenArray system. This novel qPCR platform provides high-density and low-volume qPCR microarrays that are capable of accommodating 3,072 reactions per array (OpenArray; BioTrove Inc., Woburn, MA) (15, 25, 29). The OpenArray contains 48 subarrays, each consisting of 64 microscopic through holes with a volume of 33 nl (Fig. ​(Fig.1A)1A) into which primer pairs are preloaded as specified by the user. Depending on the assay layout, a single OpenArray allows parallel testing of up to 144 samples against a maximum of 3,072 targets.Open in a separate windowFIG. 1.Schematic overview of the internal amplification control (IAC) on the Biotrove OpenArray system. (A) OpenArray architecture. The OpenArray has 48 subarrays, each containing 64 microscopic 33-nl through holes. The primers are preloaded into the holes. The sample combined with the reaction mixture is autoloaded by the surface tension of the hydrophilically coated holes and the hydrophobic surface of the OpenArray. (B) IAC target design. Each IAC target consists of a 60-nucleotide-long spacer DNA fragment (S1, S2, S3, S4) flanked by IAC-unique primer sequences (F1/R1, F2/R2, F3/R3, F4/R4). The sequence order of the spacer DNA fragments is randomized for each IAC, but all of the IACs are equal in nucleotide composition. The IAC-unique primer pairs ensure IAC-specific amplification in a real-time PCR. IAC targets were cloned into pGem-T vectors. (C) IAC detection principle. A mixture containing a range of concentrations of the four IAC targets, the DNA sample, and real-time PCR reagents is loaded onto a subarray. The IAC targets are independently amplified with the IAC-unique primers which are spotted into selected through holes. Amplification is monitored with SYBR green dye, and potential PCR inhibition is assessed based on the C_T numbers of the IAC target mixture.To date, most IACs have been applied in a single concentration. It has, however, been shown that IACs used at high concentrations may fail to detect weak PCR inhibition and that inhibition of target amplification may be target concentration dependent (7, 22). Here, we hypothesized that accurate quantification by real-time PCR requires an IAC with a wider concentration range. Fortunately, new-generation qPCR platforms facilitated the development of such a new type of amplification control without increased labor or cost.In this report, we describe a newly developed IAC approach in which different IAC targets are applied at a range of concentrations, thereby providing a calibration IAC curve that enables more accurate target quantification. Primers for the different IACs are spotted along with target-specific primer pairs in separate through holes per subarray, while the IAC target mixture is spiked into the environmental DNA extracts (Fig. 1B and C). The DNA-IAC mixture is then loaded onto the OpenArray subarray, and all targets are amplified and monitored individually in real time (Fig. ​(Fig.1C1C).We describe the development, testing, and application of a novel IAC approach for high-throughput screening of environmental samples on next-generation qPCR platforms. Soil DNA extracts varying in their degrees of PCR inhibition were used to demonstrate that this IAC strategy can accurately compensate for partial PCR inhibition during the detection of microbial targets in complex environmental samples. The benefits of our novel IAC approach are discussed with respect its application to various complex matrices where accurate quantification of targets is desired.     

Accurate documentation of Germplasm: The lost guatemalan teosintes (Zea,Gramineae)

The great need for adequate documentation of germplasm collections, including accurate geographic location, needs again to be stressed. We discuss 3 reported stations for teosinte (Zea spp., Gramineae) in Guatemala. The first was discovered by Melhus and Chamberlain in 1949; an attempt by the senior author to relocate this station in 1976 was unsuccessful, but we now have a good idea of where this population (probablyZ. luxurians) may occur. The second, that of Rojas in 1942, lies well outside the known ranges of either of the 2 Guatemalan teosintes, Z.luxurians andZ. mays subsp.parviglumis var.huehuetenangensis. The third, a collection of Steyermark’s, turns out to be aTripsacum. We urge plant scientists, applied botanists, geographers, anthropologists, and others to provide voucher specimens with accurate location data for all plant populations that they study.     

Estimation of Parameters in a Bertalanffy Type of Temperature Dependent Growth Model Using Data on Juvenile Stone Loach (Barbatula barbatula)

Parameters of a Bertalanffy type of temperature dependent growth model are fitted using data from a population of stone loach (Barbatula barbatula). Over two periods respectively in 1990 and 2010 length data of this population has been collected at a lowland stream in the central part of the Netherlands. The estimation of the maximum length of a fully grown individual is given special attention because it is in fact found as the result of an extrapolation over a large interval of the entire lifetime. It is concluded that this parameter should not at forehand be set at one fixed value for the population at that location due to varying conditions over the years.     

Annual Variation of Environmental Variables, Phytoplankton Species Composition and Photosynthetic Parameters in a Coastal Lagoon

Physical–chemical variables, phytoplankton biomass, speciescomposition and photosynthesis–irradiance (P-I) parameterswere analysed during 1 year in the Santo André Lagoon,SouthwestPortugal – a land-locked coastal ecosystem withtemporary connections with the sea. When the lagoon stayed closedthe observed phytoplankton blooms were mainly caused by Prorocentrumminimum, a potentially toxic dinoflagellate. It was dominantduring most of the year but the seawater inflow to the lagoontriggered a decrease in phytoplankton biomass and an abruptshift in species composition. The maximum photosynthetic rate(P_max) ranged from 2.0 to 22.5 mg C (mg chlorophyll a)^–1h^–1 and the light saturation index (I_k), ranged from 5.2to 335.0 µE m^–2 s^–1, with winter minima andsummer maxima. P_max and I_k were both positively correlated totemperature. Abundance ofP. minimum was associated with highnitrate concentrations whereas diatoms appear when ammonium,salinity and wind velocity are high. A mathematical model todescribe photosynthetic rate as a function of irradiance andtemperature [P (I, t)] was applied to the samples in which P.minimum was the dominant species     

Computational Analysis of AMPK-Mediated Neuroprotection Suggests Acute Excitotoxic Bioenergetics and Glucose Dynamics Are Regulated by a Minimal Set of Critical Reactions

Loss of ionic homeostasis during excitotoxic stress depletes ATP levels and activates the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), re-establishing energy production by increased expression of glucose transporters on the plasma membrane. Here, we develop a computational model to test whether this AMPK-mediated glucose import can rapidly restore ATP levels following a transient excitotoxic insult. We demonstrate that a highly compact model, comprising a minimal set of critical reactions, can closely resemble the rapid dynamics and cell-to-cell heterogeneity of ATP levels and AMPK activity, as confirmed by single-cell fluorescence microscopy in rat primary cerebellar neurons exposed to glutamate excitotoxicity. The model further correctly predicted an excitotoxicity-induced elevation of intracellular glucose, and well resembled the delayed recovery and cell-to-cell heterogeneity of experimentally measured glucose dynamics. The model also predicted necrotic bioenergetic collapse and altered calcium dynamics following more severe excitotoxic insults. In conclusion, our data suggest that a minimal set of critical reactions may determine the acute bioenergetic response to transient excitotoxicity and that an AMPK-mediated increase in intracellular glucose may be sufficient to rapidly recover ATP levels following an excitotoxic insult.     

Environmental biology of a sod webworm Crambus tutillus (Lepidoptera, Crambidae)

Crambus tutillus McDunnough was studied to determine the role of temperature and photoperiod in regulating the seasonal development of this univoltine sod webworm. Diapause was induced by exposing seventh instar larvae to short days which initiated the molt to the eighth or diapausing instar. After induction of diapause, short days and cool temperatures were required for normal diapause development. Diapausing larvae exposed to short days and warm temperatures died whereas those exposed to long days and warm temperatures readily terminated diapause, completed the 9th instar, pupated and emerged as adults. The rate of growth of early instars was found to increase as the daylength decreased. This response is believed to be a precise adaptation to the photoperiods of summer in adjusting the rate of development to the seasonal supply of food.

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Zusammenfassung Es wird untersucht, welche Rolle Temperatur und Photoperiode im jahreszeitlichen Entwicklungsgang des univoltinen Rasenbülten-Spinners, Crambus tutillus McDunnough, spielen. In Oregon häuten sich die überwinterten Larven im Frühjahr zum letzten Larvenstadium, fressen gewaltig, verpuppen sich und beginnen Mitte Mai als Falter zu schlüpfen. Die reproduktive Phase erreicht ihren Gipfel Anfang Juni und ist im Juli beendet. Die Falter leben 10–14 Tage und legen Eier, die nach 10 Tagen schlüpfen. Die aus ihnen entstehenden Larven entwickeln sich während des Sommers nur langsam und erreichen im Herbst das Überwinterungsstadium.Für jedes Stadium (instar) wurde die Verteilung der Kopfkapselgröße bestimmt. Larven, die kurzen Tageslängen ausgesetzt werden, entwickeln sich schneller als solche, die längeren unterlagen. Durch Einwirkung von Kurztagen während des 7. Stadiums wird eine Diapause induziert, indem die Häutung zum 8. oder Diapause-Stadium ausgelöst wird. Nach der Diapause-Induktion sind zur normalen Entwicklung Kurztag und Kühle erforderlich. Diapausierende Larven, die Kurztag und Wärme ausgesetzt wurden, starben, während diejenigen, die Langtag und Wärme erhielten, die Diapause beendeten, das 9. Stadium vollendeten und sich zu Imagines entwickelten. Die Wachstumsrate der frühen Larvenstadien stieg in dem Maße, wie sich dis Tageslänge verkürzte. Diese Reaktion wird als eine exakte Anpassung an die Tageslängen des Sommers betrachtet, welche die Entwicklungsgeschwindigkeit der Menge der jahreszeitlich verfügbaren Nahrung angleicht.

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Work was conducted in cooperation with the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station, Corvallis and approved as Technical Paper No. 2851.