The “dehesa”, a key ecosystem in maintaining the diversity of Mediterranean saproxylic insects (Coleoptera and Diptera: Syrphidae)

The “dehesa” is a traditional Iberian agrosilvopastoral ecosystem characterized by the presence of old scattered trees that are considered as “keystone-structures”, which favor the presence of a wide range of biodiversity. We show the high diversity of saproxylic beetles and syrphids (Diptera) in this ecosystem, including red-listed species. We analyzed whether saproxylic species distribution in the “dehesa” was affected by tree density per hectare, dominant tree species or vegetation coverage. Species diversity did not correlate with tree density; however, it was affected by tree species and shrub coverage but in a different way for each taxon. The highest beetle diversity was linked to Quercus pyrenaica, the most managed tree species, with eight indicator species. In contrast, Q. rotundifolia hosted more species of saproxylic syrphids. Regarding vegetation coverage, shrub coverage was the only variable that affected insect richness, again in a different way for both taxa. In contrast, beetle species composition was only affected by dominant tree species whereas syrphid species composition was not affected by tree species or shrub coverage. We concluded that the high diversity of saproxylic insects in the “dehesa” is related to its long history of agrosilvopastoral management, which has generated landscape heterogeneity and preserved old mature trees. However, the richness and composition of different taxa of insects respond in different ways to tree species and vegetation coverage. Consequently, conservation strategies should try to maintain traditional management, and different saproxylic taxa should be used to monitor the effect of management on saproxylic diversity.     

Mental Health: The Search for a Definition

Various attempts to define the concept of “mental health” are examined. Value judgments permeate much mental health literature. Their use militates against obtaining an objective definition, capable of universal application. The acceptance of a definition including a value judgment implies taking an attitude toward a particular society and its social ideals.Present limits of competence only allow us to describe “mental health” conceptually. Such “untechnical” proposals are liable to be confused with “technical” (“scientific”) propositions. Multiple criteria are likely to be helpful in improving our concept of “mental health”.The intrusion of morals into the world of health is discussed as part of the contemporary intellectual dilemma of determined human behaviour versus human responsibility and the reality of moral values.It is suggested that “mental health” might consist simply of an individual''s possession of insight into his own personality, combined with an honest recognition and acceptance of his condition.     

Links between the discovery of primates and anatomical comparisons with humans,the chain of being,our place in nature,and racism

I focus on the crucial links between the discovery of nonhuman primates by Westerners, discussions on our place in nature, the chain of being, racism, and the history of primate comparative anatomy and of so‐called “anatomical human racial studies.” Strikingly, for more than a millennium humans knew more about the internal anatomy of a single monkey species than about that of their own bodies. This is because Galen used monkeys to infer human anatomy, in line with the human‐animal continuity implied by the Greek notion of scala naturae. With the rise of Christianity, nonhuman primates were increasingly seen in a negative way. A more positive view emerged in the 14th century when nonhuman primates were directly studied/seen by Europeans, culminating in Tyson's 1699 work showing that chimps share more gross anatomical similarities with humans than with monkeys. However, the discomfort caused by this human‐chimp similarity then led to a new idea of animal‐human discontinuity, now related not to anatomy but to “civilization”: between Europeans vs. non‐Europeans + other primates. Moreover, Linnaeus' Systema Naturae and the emergence of “anatomical racial studies” influenced by Camper's craniology then led to even more extreme ideas, such as the notion that Europeans were both mentally and morphologically “ideal.” Unfortunately the biased and often incorrect “results” of such studies, combined with ideas based on Darwin's “struggle for survival”, became crucial in propaganda that lead to the rise of eugenics in the end of the 19th/first half of 20th centuries and that culminated in Nazism. Since the 1950s there has been an emphasis on the continuity/unity between all human groups and other primates, in great part influenced by what happened during World War 2. Reviews such as this one are, therefore, particularly necessary to illuminate and guard against attitudes against “the Other” and racist ideologies that are re‐emerging in modern political discourse across the globe.     

Human Biology and Ecology: Variation in Nature and the Nature of Variation

Human biology seeks to understand human variation and the biological, environmental, social, and historical influences on that variation. Views of the nature of both variation and environment have changed during the past 100 years. Typological approaches to nature and human diversity shifted to an evolutionary perspective during the first half of the 20th century. In the second half, widespread human biological variation was documented and interpreted in terms of adaptation to the environment. Environmental physiology and reproductive ecology continue to document environmental influences on human biological functioning, but with (1) an expanded concept of environment that acknowledges more fully the interactions among its physical, biotic, and social aspects and (2) an expanded theoretical basis, drawing on evolutionary ecology and life history theory, acknowledging tradeoffs and changing constraints and opportunities over the lifetime. Human biology gains from greater interaction with other fields, such as political ecology, but also contributes to them. [Keywords: biological anthropology, human ecology, adaptation, environmental physiology, reproductive ecology]     

A novel approach to understanding bird communities using informed diversity estimates at local and regional scales in northern California and southern Oregon

Assessment and preservation of biodiversity has been a central theme of conservation biology since the discipline's inception. However, when diversity estimates are based purely on measures of presence–absence, or even abundance, they do not directly assess in what way focal habitats support the life history needs of individual species making up biological communities. Here, we move beyond naïve measures of occurrence and introduce the concept of “informed diversity” indices which scale estimates of avian species richness and community assemblage by two critical phases of their life cycle: breeding and molt. We tested the validity of the “informed diversity” concept using bird capture data from multiple locations in northern California and southern Oregon to examine patterns of species richness among breeding, molting, and naïve (based solely on occurrence) bird communities at the landscape and local scales using linear regression, community similarity indices, and a Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA). At the landscape scale, we found a striking pattern of increased species richness for breeding, molting, and naïve bird communities further inland and at higher elevations throughout the study area. At the local scale, we found that some sites with species‐rich naïve communities were in fact species‐poor when informed by breeding status, indicating that naïve richness may mask more biologically meaningful patterns of diversity. We suggest that land managers use informed diversity estimates instead of naïve measures of diversity to identify ecologically valuable wildlife habitat.     

Best management practices to face degraded territories occupied by Cistus ladanifer shrublands – Portugal case study

Land degradation in the Mediterranean Basin is clearly connected to the resilience of perturbed ecosystems, contributing to land abandonment, recurrent fires and biodiversity loss, with the prevalence of secondary shrublands that tend to occupy large areas. This is the case of Cistus ladanifer shrublands, one of the most widespread shrub communities in the Iberian Peninsula and a poor, uniform and resilient system. Here, we analyse the impact of several management practices in the recovery of territories largely occupied by this shrubland. We tested “non-intervention”, “cut”, “fire”, “mechanical mobilisation” and “pasture” in 100-m² plots of Cistus ladaniferus L., in Central Portugal, and followed them from 1993. Flora were analysed using Braun–Blanquet's methodology and the plots were compared with hierarchical cluster analysis and principal component analysis. An analysis of variance was also performed to investigate differences in management practices, both between plots and between two periods of time. The results show that extensive grazing or continuous cut have a high impact on plant diversity and community structure, with extensive grazing being the best way to improve plant diversity in a short period of time, using fewer resources.     

Bioarcheology has a “health” problem: Conceptualizing “stress” and “health” in bioarcheological research

This article provides a critical historical overview of the stress concept in bioarcheological research and critically evaluates the term “health” in reference to skeletal samples. Stress has a considerable history in 20th century physiological research, and the term has reached a critical capacity of meaning. Stress was operationalized around a series of generalized physiological responses that were associated with a deviation from homeostasis. The term was incorporated into anthropological research during the mid-20th century, and further defined in bioarcheological context around a series of skeletal indicators of physiological disruption and disease. Emphases on stress became a predominate area of research in bioarcheology, and eventually, many studies utilized the terms “health” and “stress” interchangeably as part of a broader, problem-oriented approach to evaluating prehistoric population dynamics. Use of the term “health” in relation to skeletal samples is associated with the intellectual history of bioarcheological research, specifically influences from cultural ecology and processualist archeology and remains problematic for two reasons. First, health represents a comprehensive state of well-being that includes physiological status and individual perception, factors that cannot be readily observed in skeletal samples. Second, the categorization of populations into relative levels of health represents a typological approach, however unintentional. This article advocates for the integration of methodological and theoretical advances from human biology and primatology, while simultaneously incorporating the theoretical constructs associated with social epidemiology into bioarcheological research. Such an approach will significantly increase the applicability of bioarcheological findings to anthropological and evolutionary research, and help realize the goal of a truly relevant bioarcheological paradigm. Am J Phys Anthropol 155:186–191, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Fifty years of invasion ecology – the legacy of Charles Elton

The publication, in 1958, of Charles Elton's book The ecology of invasions by animals and plants launched the systematic study of biological invasions. Invasion ecology has grown to become an important multi‐disciplinary subfield of ecology with growing links to many other disciplines. This paper examines the citation history of Elton's book using the Web of Science. We also examine Elton's influence in shaping the current research agenda in invasion ecology, for which we use the 28 papers in a special issue of Diversity and Distributions (Volume 14: 2) as a representative sample. After 50 years, Elton's book remains the most cited single source in the field (> 1500 citations), and is cited more often every year (> 100 times) than any other invasion‐related publication, including influential papers in journals. Most citations to Elton's book refer to particular topics/concepts covered in the book, rather than citing it as a general reference about invasions. The shift in the distribution of topics/concepts cited with reference to Elton over time follows the same trend as for biogeography and ecology in general (increasing emphasis on analytical studies, multi‐scale analyses, multi‐disciplinary studies, etc.). Some topics emphasized by Elton are still the focus of current research (dispersal and spread of invasive organisms, impact on biodiversity, role of disturbance and enemy release) but several prominent themes in modern studies were not addressed by Elton. The emergence of new themes can be attributed to a general change in approach and emphasis underpinning research questions in conservation biogeography and applied ecology over the last half century (risk analysis, multi‐scale comparisons, propagule pressure, experimental approaches) and to the recent emergence and increasing availability of large data sets on the distribution of introduced species and to the emergence of key technologies (e.g. geographic information systems, modelling techniques, including niche‐based modelling, and molecular methods). Half a century after its publication, Charles Elton's book on invasions remains influential, but massive changes in the status of invasions and other environmental issues worldwide, together with advances in technology, are reshaping the game rules and priorities of invasion ecology.     

Extending the quasi-neutral concept

In caricature, the equilibrium paradigm of community ecology states that plant communities are stable entities consisting of competing species - and that such species coexist because each has its “niche”. This paradigm, in its extreme, has been dead for some time. Nevertheless, it has yet to be replaced by a credible “non” — equilibrium paradigm. The quasi-neutral concept of plant communities, proposed by Kristjan Zobel,Folia Geobot. 36: 3–8, 2001, possesses some of the key ingredients of a nonequilibrium theory of diversity. It recognizes that there are inescapable relationships between diversity at different scales, that similarity can influence the rate of competitive exclusion, that successional change is typically associated with changes in life form, and that rarefaction (i.e. “sampling artifacts”) can have strong effects on fine-scale diversity. However, the current formulation of the quasi-neutral concept is incomplete in that it relies on an unrealistic definition of community, it assumes that random sampling means that species richness at one scale will be linearly related to richness at finer scales, it ignores the possibility of fine-scale processes producing broader-scale patterns, and it avoids the subject of fine-scale environmental heterogeneity. But the most serious limitation of the quasi-neutral concept is that similarity of species alone is not sufficient to allow indefinite coexistence. I present the results of a simple simulation to demonstrate that: (1) identical species will eventually be lost from communities due to stochastic “drift”, (2) slight variations in reproductive rates accelerate this loss, but (3) adding a miniscule “cost of commonness” to the model allows the indefinite coexistence of species. I conclude that the quasi-neutral model cannot work without some kind of trade-off.     

The ripples of modernity: How we can extend paleoanthropology with the extended evolutionary synthesis

Contemporary understandings of paleoanthropological data illustrate that the search for a line defining, or a specific point designating, “modern human” is problematic. Here we lend support to the argument for the need to look for patterns in the paleoanthropological record that indicate how multiple evolutionary processes intersected to form the human niche, a concept critical to assessing the development and processes involved in the emergence of a contemporary human phenotype. We suggest that incorporating key elements of the Extended Evolutionary Synthesis (EES) into our endeavors offers a better and more integrative toolkit for modeling and assessing the evolution of the genus Homo. To illustrate our points, we highlight how aspects of the genetic exchanges, morphology, and material culture of the later Pleistocene complicate the concept of “modern” human behavior and suggest that multiple evolutionary patterns, processes, and pathways intersected to form the human niche.     

Genetic variability of the peripheral population of the greater long-tailed hamster <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tscherskia triton</Emphasis> (De Winton 1899) in the northeastern part of the distribution range based on sequencing data of the control region of mitochondrial DNA

The genetic variability of the greater long-tailed hamster Tscherskia triton of the peripheral population of the southern Russian Far East is evaluated compared to the central populations of China based on the nucleotide sequences of the control region of mitochondrial DNA. The high genetic diversity of the population of the southern part of Russian Far East is established, which does not confirm a hypothesis on reduction of the diversity in the peripheral populations. The presence of three phylogroups is discovered: one within Russia (“northern”) and two within China (“central” and “southern”). A deletion, absent in other taxonomically distant groups of the Old and New World and acquired by the greater long-tailed hamster over the course of its evolutionary history, is present in certain populations of this species. A preliminary hypothesis, according to which the contemporary structure of this species is determined not only by topographical and climatic events, but by human activity as well, is formulated.     

Logical fallacies and invasion biology

Leading invasion biologists sometimes dismiss critics and criticisms of their field by invoking “the straw man” fallacy. Critics of invasion biology are also labelled as a small group of “naysayers” or “contrarians”, who are sometimes engaging in “science denialism”. Such unfortunate labels can be seen as a way to possibly suppress legitimate debates and dismiss or minimize reasonable concerns about some aspects of invasion biology, including the uncertainties about the geographic origins and complex environmental impacts of species, and the control programs against species perceived as “invasive”. In assessing the quality of the debate in this area, we examine the validity of the use of various strategies, including the “straw man” concept, and explore a range of potential logical fallacies present in some recent prominent discussions about invasion biology and so-called “invasive” species. The goal is to add some clarity to the concepts involved, point out some problematic issues, and improve the quality of the debates as the discussions move forward.     

Life history focus on a malaria parasite: linked traits and variation among genetic clones

Life history theory has long been a major campaign in evolutionary ecology, but has typically focused only on animals and plants. Life history research on single-celled eukaryotic protists such as malaria parasites (Plasmodium) will offer new insights into the theory’s general utility as well as the parasite’s basic biology. For example, parasitologists have described the Plasmodium life cycle and cell types in exquisite detail, with little discussion of evolutionary issues such as developmental links between traits. We measured 10 life history traits of replicate single-genotype experimental Plasmodium mexicanum infections in its natural lizard host to identify groups of linked traits. These 10 traits formed 4 trait groups: “Rate/Peak” merges measures of growth rate and maximum parasitemia of infections; “Timing” combines time to patency and maximum parasitemia; “Growth Shape” describes the fit to an exponential growth curve; and “Sex Ratio” includes only the gametocyte sex ratio. Parasite genotype (clone) showed no effect on the life history trait groups, with the exception of gametocyte sex ratio. Therefore, variation in most life history traits among infections appears to be driven by environmental (individual host) effects. The findings support the model that life history traits are often linked by developmental constraints. Understanding why life history traits of Plasmodium are linked in this way would offer a new window into the evolution of the parasites, and also should inform public health efforts to control infection prevalence.     

Rethinking Causation for Data-intensive Biology: Constraints,Cancellations, and Quantized Organisms

Complex organisms thwart the simple rectilinear causality paradigm of “necessary and sufficient,” with its experimental strategy of “knock down and overexpress.” This Essay organizes the eccentricities of biology into four categories that call for new mathematical approaches; recaps for the biologist the philosopher's recent refinements to the causation concept and the mathematician's computational tools that handle some but not all of the biological eccentricities; and describes overlooked insights that make causal properties of physical hierarchies such as emergence and downward causation straightforward. Reviewing and extrapolating from similar situations in physics, it is suggested that new mathematical tools for causation analysis incorporating feedback, signal cancellation, nonlinear dependencies, physical hierarchies, and fixed constraints rather than instigative changes will reveal unconventional biological behaviors. These include “eigenisms,” organisms that are limited to quantized states; trajectories that steer a system such as an evolving species toward optimal states; and medical control via distributed “sheets” rather than single control points.     

The Cell and Protoplasm as Container,Object, and Substance, 1835–1861

This article revisits the development of the protoplasm concept as it originally arose from critiques of the cell theory, and examines how the term “protoplasm” transformed from a botanical term of art in the 1840s to the so-called “living substance” and “the physical basis of life” two decades later. I show that there were two major shifts in biological materialism that needed to occur before protoplasm theory could be elevated to have equal status with cell theory in the nineteenth century. First, I argue that biologists had to accept that life could inhere in matter alone, regardless of form. Second, I argue that in the 1840s, ideas of what formless, biological matter was capable of dramatically changed: going from a “coagulation paradigm” (Pickstone, 1973) that had existed since Theophrastus, to a more robust conception of matter that was itself capable of movement and self-maintenance. In addition to revisiting Schleiden and Schwann’s original writings on cell theory, this article looks especially closely at Hugo von Mohl’s definition of the protoplasm concept in 1846, how it differed from his primordial utricle theory of cell structure two years earlier. This article draws on Lakoff and Johnson’s theory of “ontological metaphors” to show that the cell, primordial utricle, and protoplasm can be understood as material container, object, and substance, and that these overlapping distinctions help explain the chaotic and confusing early history of cell theory.     

Environmental diversity of bacteria and archaea

The microbial way of life spans at least 3.8 billion years of evolution. Microbial organisms are pervasive, ubiquitous, and essential components of all ecosystems. The geochemical composition of Earth's biosphere has been molded largely by microbial activities. Yet, despite the predominance of microbes during the course of life's history, general principles and theory of microbial evolution and ecology are not well developed. Until recently, investigators had no idea how accurately cultivated microorganisms represented overall microbial diversity. The development of molecular phylogenetics has recently enabled characterization of naturally occurring microbial biota without cultivation. Free from the biases of culture-based studies, molecular phylogenetic surveys have revealed a vast array of new microbial groups. Many of these new microbes are widespread and abundant among contemporary microbiota and fall within novel divisions that branch deep within the tree of life. The breadth and extent of extant microbial diversity has become much clearer. A remaining challenge for microbial biologists is to better characterize the biological properties of these newly described microbial taxa. This more comprehensive picture will provide much better perspective on the natural history, ecology, and evolution of extant microbial life.     

Variations on a Chip: Technologies of Difference in Human Genetics Research

In this article we examine the history of the production of microarray technologies and their role in constructing and operationalizing views of human genetic difference in contemporary genomics. Rather than the “turn to difference” emerging as a post-Human Genome Project (HGP) phenomenon, interest in individual and group differences was a central, motivating concept in human genetics throughout the twentieth century. This interest was entwined with efforts to develop polymorphic “genetic markers” for studying human traits and diseases. We trace the technological, methodological and conceptual strategies in the late twentieth century that established single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) as key focal points for locating difference in the genome. By embedding SNPs in microarrays, researchers created a technology that they used to catalog and assess human genetic variation. In the process of making genetic markers and array-based technologies to track variation, scientists also made commitments to ways of describing, cataloging and “knowing” human genetic differences that refracted difference through a continental geographic lens. We show how difference came to matter in both senses of the term: difference was made salient to, and inscribed on, genetic matter(s), as a result of the decisions, assessments and choices of collaborative and hybrid research collectives in medical genomics research.