Juvenile idiopathic arthritis genetics - what's new? What's next?

Studies have established the magnitude of the genetic basis of juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA). JIA is a complex genetic condition and the genes that influence susceptibility are actively being sought. A candidate gene approach is being used by several groups. MHC-, cytokine- and T-cell-related genes have all been positively associated with JIA. Here we review some of the latest genetic data, and discuss ways in which JIA genetic research might proceed.     

What's next? Sequential movement encoding in primary motor cortex

Complex actions often can be decomposed into sequences of individual movements. Primate medial motor areas (SMA and pre-SMA) have been shown to be key players in the concert of such sequential actions. In this issue of Neuron, Lu and Ashe show for the first time that neurons in primate M1-the ultimate output stage of cortex-have anticipatory activity related to specific movement sequences. These findings challenge the traditional view of M1 as being a simple module for generating movements.     

Pioneers and Perches—Promising Restoration Methods for Degraded Renosterveld Habitats?

Areas of abandoned agricultural fields are globally increasing and are also common features in the Cape Lowlands of South Africa. Previous restoration attempts in degraded West Coast renosterveld, a Mediterranean‐climate shrubland, have attained limited success and therefore novel approaches are needed for this area. The study reports on two restoration experiments, designed to re‐introduce key plant functional types back into this critically endangered habitat. The first experiment concentrated on a common pioneer species in renosterveld vegetation, Otholobium hirtum. Although in vitro experiments showed a significantly elevated germination response after scarification, in vivo experiments failed to produce establishment in an abandoned field. The second restoration experiment focused on bush clumps, a sub‐type of renosterveld vegetation that is characterized by broad‐leaved shrubs with fleshy bird‐dispersed diaspores. The effect of artificial bird perches and their potential to enhance diaspore dispersal by frugivorous birds in two abandoned field communities was tested. Results showed a significant increase in seed dispersal at artificial perch sites. However, in the next fruiting season, and after perch removal, seed germination and establishment in abandoned fields was not successful. The experiments revealed that restoration using early‐succession species and natural dispersal vectors appear not to produce demonstrable benefits, despite their promising potential and pre‐testing of effectiveness. Before launching large‐scale restoration programs in abandoned fields of renosterveld, preliminary studies in‐field are strongly recommended.     

Smoke signals and seed dormancy: Where next for MAX2?

The Arabidopsis thaliana F-box protein MAX2 has been discovered in four separate genetic screens, indicating that it has roles in leaf senescence, seedling photosensitivity, shoot outgrowth and seed germination. Both strigolactones and karrikins can regulate A. thaliana seed germination and seedling photomorphogenesis in a MAX2-dependent manner, but only strigolactones inhibit shoot branching. How MAX2 mediates specific responses to both classes of structurally-related signals, and the origin of its dual role remains unknown. The moss Physcomitrella patens utilizes strigolactones and MAX2 orthologs are present across the land plants, suggesting that this signaling system could have an ancient origin. The seed of parasitic Orobanchaceae species germinate preferentially in response to strigolactones over karrikins, and putative Orobanchaceae MAX2 orthologs form a sub-clade distinct from those of other dicots. These observations suggest that lineage-specific evolution of MAX2 may have given rise to specialized responses to these signaling molecules.Key words: karrikins, strigolactones, F-box protein, seed germination, photomorphogenesis, parasitic weeds, mycorrhiza, moss, axillary branching     

What's on the horizon for macroecology?

Over the last two decades, macroecology – the analysis of large‐scale, multi‐species ecological patterns and processes – has established itself as a major line of biological research. Analyses of statistical links between environmental variables and biotic responses have long and successfully been employed as a main approach, but new developments are due to be utilized. Scanning the horizon of macroecology, we identified four challenges that will probably play a major role in the future. We support our claims by examples and bibliographic analyses. 1) Integrating the past into macroecological analyses, e.g. by using paleontological or phylogenetic information or by applying methods from historical biogeography, will sharpen our understanding of the underlying reasons for contemporary patterns. 2) Explicit consideration of the local processes that lead to the observed larger‐scale patterns is necessary to understand the fine‐grain variability found in nature, and will enable better prediction of future patterns (e.g. under environmental change conditions). 3) Macroecology is dependent on large‐scale, high quality data from a broad spectrum of taxa and regions. More available data sources need to be tapped and new, small‐grain large‐extent data need to be collected. 4) Although macroecology already lead to mainstreaming cutting‐edge statistical analysis techniques, we find that more sophisticated methods are needed to account for the biases inherent to sampling at large scale. Bayesian methods may be particularly suitable to address these challenges. To continue the vigorous development of the macroecological research agenda, it is time to address these challenges and to avoid becoming too complacent with current achievements.     

VEGF and bone cell signalling: an essential vessel for communication?

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is an endothelial cell survival factor and is required for effective coupling of angiogenesis and osteogenesis. Although central to bone homeostasis, repair and the pathobiology that affect these processes, the precise mechanisms coupling endothelial cell function within bone formation and remodelling remain unclarified. This review will (i) focus on the potential directionality of VEGF signalling in adult bone by identifying the predominant source of VEGF within the bone microenvironment, (ii) will summarize current VEGF receptor expression studies by bone cells and (iii) will provide evidence for a role for VEGF signalling during postnatal repair and osteoporosis. A means of understanding the directionality of VEGF signalling in adult bone would allow us to most effectively target angiogenic pathways in diseases characterized by changes in bone remodelling rates and enhance bone repair when compromised. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

What's on the horizon for community-based conservation? Emerging threats and opportunities

Community-based conservation can support livelihoods and biodiversity, while reinforcing local and Indigenous values, cultures, and institutions. Its delivery can help address cross-cutting global challenges, such as climate change, conservation, poverty, and food security. Therefore, understanding trends in community-based conservation is pertinent to setting and implementing global goals. We undertook a horizon scan to prioritize 15 emerging threats and opportunities expected to impact the future effectiveness of community-based conservation. Topics relate to global biodiversity policy; human rights; shifting human geography; inclusion, diversity, equity, and access; conservation finance and income; and economic reforms. Our findings offer guidance on strengthening community-based conservation to achieve global environmental and development goals.     

Phytoremediation—A Novel and Promising Approach for Environmental Clean-up

ABSTRACT

Phytoremediation is an eco friendly approach for remediation of contaminated soil and water using plants. Phytoremediation is comprised of two components, one by the root colonizing microbes and the other by plants themselves, which degrade the toxic compounds to further non-toxic metabolites. Various compounds, viz. organic compounds, xenobiotics, pesticides and heavy metals, are among the contaminants that can be effectively remediated by plants. Plant cell cultures, hairy roots and algae have been studied for their ability to degrade a number of contaminants. They exhibit various enzymatic activities for degradation of xenobiotics, viz. dehalogenation, denitrification leading to breakdown of complex compounds to simple and non-toxic products. Plants and algae also have the ability to hyper accumulate various heavy metals by the action of phytochelatins and metallothioneins forming complexes with heavy metals and translocate them into vacuoles. Molecular cloning and expression of heavy metal accumulator genes and xenobiotic degrading enzyme coding genes resulted in enhanced remediation rates, which will be helpful in making the process for large-scale application to remediate vast areas of contaminated soils. A few companies worldwide are also working on this aspect of bioremediation, mainly by transgenic plants to replace expensive physical or chemical remediation techniques. Selection and testing multiple hyperaccumulator plants, protein engineering of phytochelatin and membrane transporter genes and their expression would enhance the rate of phytoremediation, making this process a successful one for bioremediation of environmental contamination. Recent years have seen major investments in the R&D, which have also resulted in competition of filing patents by several companies for economic gains. The details of science & technology related to phytoremediation have been discussed with a focus on future trends and prospects of global relevance.