Genetic diversity of Hibiscus tiliaceus (Malvaceae) in China assessed using AFLP markers

Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers were used to investigate the genetic variations within and among nine natural populations of Hibiscus tiliaceus in China. DNA from 145 individuals was amplified with eight primer pairs. No polymorphisms were found among the 20 samples of a marginal population of recent origin probably due to a founder effect. Across the other 125 individuals, 501 of 566 bands (88.5%) were polymorphic, and 125 unique AFLP phenotypes were observed. Estimates of genetic diversity agreed with life history traits of H. tiliaceus and geographical distribution. AMOVA analysis revealed that most genetic diversity resided within populations (84.8%), which corresponded to results reported for outcrossing plants. The indirect estimate of gene flow based on phiST was moderate (Nm=1.395). Long-distance dispersal of floating seeds and local environments may play an important role in shaping the genetic diversity of the population and the genetic structure of this species.     

Patterns of genetic diversity and biogeographical history of the tropical wetland tree, Pterocarpus officinalis (Jacq.), in the Caribbean basin

Studies examining intraspecific variation in plant species with widespread distributions and disjunct populations have mainly concentrated on temperate species. Here, we determined the genetic structure of a broadly distributed wetland tropical tree, Pterocarpus officinalis (Jacq.), from eight Neotropical populations using amplified length fragment polymorphisms (AFLP). AFLPs proved highly variable with almost half (48%) of the genetic variation at these loci occurring among individuals within populations. Nonetheless, there was a strong geographical pattern in the distribution of AFLP variation within P. officinalis. Caribbean and continental populations fell into two well-defined genetic clusters supported by the presence of a number of unique AFLP bands. Within these two regions, there were also strong genetic differences among populations, caused mainly by frequency differences in AFLP bands, making it difficult to determine the evolutionary relationships among populations. In addition, our analysis of P. officinalis revealed striking differences in the levels of AFLP variation among the eight populations sampled. In general, Caribbean populations had lower genetic diversity than continental populations. Moreover, there was a clear loss in AFLP diversity with distance from the continent among Caribbean populations. The overall genetic pattern within P. officinalis suggests that past colonization history, coupled with genetic drift within local populations, rather than contemporary gene flow are the major forces shaping variation within this species.     

Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of Yellow Camellia (Camellia nitidissima) in China as Revealed by RAPD and AFLP Markers

Camellia nitidissima, a rare plant but a useful genetic resource for commercial cultivation of ornamental camellias, is distributed in a narrow region of South China and North Vietnam. In this study, RAPD and AFLP markers were used to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of six natural populations of C. nitidissima from Guangxi in South China. Twenty RAPD primers amplified 183 bands, of which 143 bands were polymorphic, and 8 AFLP primer pairs produced 502 bands, of which 364 were polymorphic. Independent as well as combined analyses of the cluster analyses of the RAPD and AFLP fragments showed that the six populations could be classified into two major genetic groups corresponding to the Nanning and Fangcheng areas. The Mantel test revealed significant correlation between the genetic and geographic distances of C. nitidissima populations (r = 0.953, p = 0.036). AMOVA analysis allowed the partitioning of the genetic variation between groups (36.09%), among populations within groups (25.78%), and within populations (38.14%). An understanding of both the genetic diversity and the population structure of C. nitidissima in China can also provide insight into the conservation and management of this endangered species.     

Effect of moxidectin selection on the genetic variation within Cylicocyclus nassatus based on amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP)

Cyathostomins are among the most important intestinal nematodes of horses, yet, the literature on the molecular genetics of these worms is scarce. In this study, the technique of amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) was applied to study the genetic diversity as well as to determine the effect of moxidectin selection on the population genetic diversity for Cylicocyclus nassatus, one of the most common cyathostomin species. Genomic DNAs from 30 individual male worms were used from each of two populations: an avermectin-milbemycin (AM)-naive population (Population-S) and a population derived from Population-S following 21 treatments with moxidectin (Population-Mox). Three selective primer pairs were used for each worm, yielding a total of 229 AFLP markers. Calculation of average pair wise Jaccard indices revealed a high degree of genetic variation within both populations using all three primer combinations. In addition, selection by moxidectin during a 3-year period caused a significant decrease in the level of genetic diversity as evidenced by analysis of AFLP markers for two primer combinations but not for the third. A dendrogram of relationships among individuals based on AFLP markers did not show a clear classification of individuals in separate groups. It was concluded that a high degree of genetic intrapopulation variation exists in C. nassatus and that moxidectin selection has a significant effect on the genetic composition of C. nassatus.     

Genetic relationships among South-East Turkey wild barley populations and sampling strategies of Hordeum spontaneum

To assess the genetic diversity and the genetic structure of Turkish wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum Tell.) populations, 76 genotypes from ten ecologically and geographically different locations were analyzed by means of amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. Five primer combinations produced 187 scorable bands, of which 117 (62.6%) were polymorphic. Several population-specific and genotype-specific bands were identified, which differentiate populations or genotypes. Genetic distance, determined by Nei’s distance coefficient, varied from 0.07 to 0.21 with an average of 0.13. In the UPGMA dendrogram based on Nei genetic distances, the Hordeum spontaneum populations were separated into two major clusters. Genetic diversity was larger among (68%) than within (32%) populations. Eight AFLP bands were strongly correlated to the altitude of the collecting site, while no clear trend was detected between geographical origin and genetic diversity. Our results strongly suggest the need for a change in Hordeum spontaneum sampling strategy: more populations, rather then more individuals within population, should be sampled to appraise and safeguard genetic diversity in the wild barley gene pool.     

Conservation genetics of endangeredBrasenia schreberi based on RAPD and AFLP markers

Brasenia schreberi J.F. Gmelin is a declared endangered species found in the lakes and ponds of South Korea. For planning its conservation strategy, we examined the genetic diversity within and among six populations, using randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP). Polymorphisms were more frequently detected per loci with AFLP (69.3%) than RAPD (36.8%). High genetic diversity was recognized within populations: polymorphic loci (PPL) values ranged from 36.3% in the CJM population to 74.5% in the GGT population, with a mean value of 47.8% based on AFLP markers. Great genetic differentiation (θ^B) was detected among the six populations (0.670 on RAPD and 0.196 on AFLP), and we calculated a low rate of gene flow (N_em), i.e., 0.116 on RAPD and 0.977 on AFLP. Furthermore, a Mantel test revealed that no correlation existed between genetic distances and geographical distances among the six local populations, based on RAPD or AFLP markers. These results are attributed to a number of factors, including an insufficient length of time for genetic diversity to be reduced following a natural decline in population size and isolation, adaptation of the genetic system to small population conditions, and a restricted gene flow rate. Based on both its genetic diversity and population structure, we suggest that a strategy for conserving and restoringB. schreberi must focus on maintaining historical processes, such as high levels of outbreeding, while monitoring increased gene flow among populations. This is because a reduction in genetic diversity as a result of genetic drift is undesirable.     

Patterns, sources and ecological implications of clonal diversity in apomictic Ranunculus carpaticola (Ranunculus auricomus complex, Ranunculaceae)

Sources and implications of genetic diversity in agamic complexes are still under debate. Population studies (amplified fragment length polymorphisms, microsatellites) and karyological methods (Feulgen DNA image densitometry and flow cytometry) were employed for characterization of genetic diversity and ploidy levels of 10 populations of Ranunculus carpaticola in central Slovakia. Whereas two diploid populations showed high levels of genetic diversity, as expected for sexual reproduction, eight populations are hexaploid and harbour lower degrees of genotypic variation, but maintain high levels of heterozygosity at many loci, as is typical for apomicts. Polyploid populations consist either of a single AFLP genotype or of one dominant and a few deviating genotypes. genotype/genodive and character incompatibility analyses suggest that genotypic variation within apomictic populations is caused by mutations, but in one population probably also by recombination. This local facultative sexuality may have a great impact on regional genotypic diversity. Two microsatellite loci discriminated genotypes separated by the accumulation of few mutations ('clone mates') within each AFLP clone. Genetic diversity is partitioned mainly among apomictic populations and is not geographically structured, which may be due to facultative sexuality and/or multiple colonizations of sites by different clones. Habitat differentiation and a tendency to inhabit artificial meadows is more pronounced in apomictic than in sexual populations. We hypothesize that maintenance of genetic diversity and superior colonizing abilities of apomicts in temporally and spatially heterogeneous environments are important for their distributional success.     

华北地区小丛红景天种群的AFLP遗传多样性

利用扩增片段长度多态性(AFLP)标记, 对分布于华北地区5个山脉的25个小丛红景天(Rhodiola dumulosa)自然种群的776个样品进行了遗传多样性和遗传结构的研究。结果表明: 华北地区小丛红景天种群具有较高的遗传多样性, 4对选择扩增引物共扩增出398条清晰的条带, 其中多态带312条, 种群的平均多态位点百分率为78.46%, 种群总的Nei’s基因多样性为0.364 9, 总Shannon多态性信息指数为0.542 2。华北地区小丛红景天种群间的遗传分化系数G_st = 0.150 7, 基因流Nm = 2.817 9, 表明种群间遗传分化较低, 有一定的基因交流。AMOVA分析结果也表明: 华北地区小丛红景天的遗传变异主要存在于种群内, 地理单元间有一定的遗传分化, 而种群间的遗传分化较低。STRUCTURE的分析和UPGMA聚类分析结果一致, 结果显示地理分布距离相近的种群优先聚在一起。Mantel检验也进一步证实, 华北地区小丛红景天种群的遗传距离与地理距离间呈显著的正相关关系(r = 0.512 9, p < 0.001)。种群的遗传多样性与海拔呈显著的负相关关系(p < 0.05), 而与坡向没有显著相关性。用Dfdist软件分析海拔对遗传多样性的影响, 结果表明没有显著的受选择位点。     

Genetic diversity and population structure of spottedtail goby (Synechogobius ommaturus) based on AFLP analysis

Larval dispersal may have an important impact on genetic structure of benthic fishes. To examine population genetic structure of spottedtail goby Synechogobius ommaturus, samples from five different locations of China and Kunsan population in Korea were analyzed by using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) technology. A total of 253 bands were identified from 91 individuals by 5 primer combinations and the percentage of polymorphic bands was 43.87%. The average gene diversity was 0.0794 ± 0.1470 and Shannon’s information index was 0.1279 ± 0.2138. The pairwise F_st values ranged from 0.022 to 0.201. The results of AMOVA analysis indicated that 90.54% of the genetic variation contained within populations and 9.46% occurred among populations. The gene flow estimates (Nm) demonstrated that different gene flow existed among populations from 0.994 to 11.114. No significant genealogical branches or clusters were recognized on the UPGMA tree. The results support the hypothesis that larval dispersal ability can be responsible for the genetic diversity and population structuring.     

Genetic diversity and biogeography of the traditional Chinese medicine, Gardenia jasminoides, based on AFLP markers

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis is used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in China. Levels of genetic variation and patterns of population structure within and among eight wild or cultivated populations of G. jasminoides Ellis in China were investigated using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. Of the 11 primers screened, four produced highly reproducible AFLP bands. Using these primers, 244 discernible DNA fragments were generated with 165 bands (67.6%), were polymorphic, indicating considerable genetic variation at the species level. In contrast, there were relatively low levels of polymorphism at the population level with the percentage of polymorphic bands (PPB) ranging from 36.89% to 59.43%. Genetic diversity within populations ranged from 0.2086 to 0.3108, averaging 0.2392 at the species level. A high level of genetic differentiation among populations was detected based on Nei's genetic diversity analysis (76.59%), Shannon's index analysis (64.8%) and AMOVA analysis (72.75%). No significant statistical differences (analysis of molecular variance [AMOVA], p = 0.0639) in AFLP variation were found between regions. However, the variance among populations and within populations differed significantly (p < 0.001). An indirect estimate of historical levels of gene flow (N_m = 1.7448) was consistent with the high mean genetic identity (mean I = 0.9263) found among populations. There is an association between geographic and genetic distances between populations. Presently gene change exists between populations.     

Population structure and genetic diversity in insular populations of Nasutitermes takasagoensis (Isoptera: Termitidae) analyzed by AFLP markers

Dispersal ability and degree of inbreeding in a population can indirectly be assessed using genetic markers. In general, it was suggested that winged termites are not able to fly distances greater than several hundred meters. Here, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) was used to analyze genetic diversity, population substructure, and gene flow among insular populations of the termite Nasutitermes takasagoensis (Isoptera: Termitidae) in the Yaeyama Islands, Okinawa, Japan. Samples were collected from 77 nests on seven islands of the Yaeyama Group. Using three primer combinations a total of 155 bands were generated with 78 (50%) polymorphic bands. Genetic distance and G(st) values among insular populations were calculated. Relatively high genetic diversity and low values of G (st), suggest there is moderate subpopulation structure. Based on these results, we discussed two possibilities; first, winged termites are able to fly over distances of several kilometers, and second, these results were obtained because insular populations share a recent common origin.     

用AFLP技术分析四川核桃资源的遗传多样性

 利用AFLP分子标记技术, 运用EcoRⅠ/MseⅠ双酶切组合, 选用多态性高、分辨力强的4对选择性扩增引物组合E32/M48、E33/M61、E35/M61、E33/M62分别对四川省3个野生核桃(Juglans regia)种群和1个野生铁核桃(J. sigillata)种群共46个样品进行遗传多样性分析、居群遗传结构分析及种属关系探讨。结果表明: 1)共扩增出244个遗传位点, 其中146个多态位点, 多态率为59.84%; 核桃群体组和铁核桃群体的多态性百分率分别为55.33%和52.05%, 两个物种遗传多态性水平相当; 核桃群体组所检出的位点平均有效等位基因数Ae、Nei’s基因多样度H、平均Shannon信息指数I分别为1.322 9、0.190 8和0.286 3, 而铁核桃群体分别为1.339 9、0.196 1和0.289 8, 铁核桃群体遗传多样性水平略高于核桃群体。2)群体间特异带及群体间共有带占总扩增带数的15.16%, 其中铁核桃群体特异谱带最多, 群体特异谱带揭示了群体间的遗传差异及相似性。3) Shannon信息指数(I)、Nei’s基因多样性指数(H)和分子方差分析(AMOVA)表明核桃遗传多样性在群体间和群体内的分布分别为14.36%和85.64%、12.6%和87.4%、11.07%和88.93%, 表明群体内的遗传多样性大于群体间的遗传多样性; 核桃群体组与铁核桃群体的变异主要存在于群体组内, 组间的遗传变异仅占总变异的9.35%, 两者间的遗传分化系数Gst为0.093 5, 与AMOVA分析结果一致。4) 4个群体的Nei’s遗传距离在0.038 2～0.069 2之间, 遗传一致度在0.933 2～0.962 5之间, 表现出较高的遗传相似性; 运用Nei’s遗传一致度对供试种群进行了UPGMA聚类, 结果表明核桃的3个群体优先聚类, 大渡河流域群体与甘南地区群体聚类最近。AFLP所检测出的结果既是核桃与铁核桃生物学特性的反映, 又是其各自生态学特性的反映, 该研究结果对核桃种质资源的保护和育种提供一定的理论依据。     

An AFLP analysis of genetic diversity and structure of Caragana microphylla populations in Inner Mongolia steppe, China

Genetic diversity and structure of five natural populations of Caragana microphylla from the Inner Mongolia steppe were estimated using AFLP markers. Five pairs of primers generated a total of 312 bands among 90 individuals, with percentage of polymorphic bands (PPB) being 63% at the population level and 76% at the species level, respectively. The genetic diversity within populations was correlated significantly with the soil N:P ratio. AMOVA analysis revealed high genetic variations within populations (95.5%). The estimated number of migrants per generation (Nm) was 10.72, indicating a high level of gene flow among populations. There was no significant correlation (r = 0.36) between genetic distance and geographical distance. These results were discussed in terms of eco-geographical variations among populations, together with the life history traits and breeding system of the species. The knowledge obtained may have important implications for better conservation and wise use of the vegetation dominate by C. microphylla.     

华中特有珍稀植物裸芸香的AFLP遗传多样性分析

采用选择性扩增片段多态性(AFLP)方法对华中特有单种属植物裸芸香(Psilopeganum sinense)的8个自然居群的遗传多样性进行了检测与分析。结果表明:裸芸香的遗传多样性较低,且居群内遗传多样性显著低于物种水平遗传多样性。筛选出的5对引物共得到180个位点,76个为多态位点,多态位点百分率为42.2%,8个居群多态位点百分率为:3.3%～16.7%,居群平均多态位点百分率为9.4%;8个居群Nei多样性指数为0.01987～0.06987,Shannon’s多样性指数为0.0197～0.0816。居群间分化系数Gst=0.5069,居群间基因流为0.2432,不足以维持居群间的基因交流及现有的遗传结构。AMOVA分析表明总遗传变异的13.17%存在于4个地理区域之间,50.45%存在于地理区域内的居群间,36.38%的遗传变异存在于居群内个体间。NTSYS分析表明遗传距离与地理距离不存在相关关系。UPGMA聚类结果表明长江南北两岸的居群并没有产生明显分化。最后,分析了裸芸香的濒危原因并提出了有效的保育措施。     

南亚热带森林优势种群荷木和锥栗在演替系列群落中的分子生态研究(英文)

用扩增片段长度多态性 (AFLP ,amplifiedfragmentlengthpolymorphism)方法研究了荷木 (SchimasuperbaGardn .etChamp .)和锥栗 (CastanopsischinensisHance .)在 3个演替系列群落中的分子变化。研究地点位于广东省鼎湖山。 3个群落是针叶林群落、针阔叶混交林群落和常绿阔叶林群落。荷木的AFLP分析结果表明 ,4组引物对分别扩增出2 4、40、2 7、2 7条带 ,其中分别有 15、2 3、2 3、16条是多样性带 ;锥栗的AFLP分析结果表明同样的 4组引物对分别扩增出 2 7、2 0、33、39条带 ,其中分别有 12、5、15、13条是多样性带。平均杂合度表明荷木比锥栗有更大的分子变异。用AMOVA(analysisofmolecularvariance)分析表明荷木种群有 95 .99%的分子分化表现在种群内 ,4.0 1%的分子分化表现在种群间 ,表现极显著 (P <0 .0 0 1) ;锥栗种群有 75 .36 %的分子分化表现在种群内 ,2 4.6 4%的分子分化表现在种群间 ,极显著 (P <0 .0 0 1)。除趋势面对应分析表明荷木来自不同群落的个体分布没有规律 ,而锥栗来自不同群落的个体大致分布在一起。上述结果的产生是两个不同种群的生物学特性的反映 ,并提示了不同群落微环境对种群分化的影响 ,以及与森林演替群落的相关性。     

中华稻蝗不同地理种群遗传多样性的AFLP分析

为研究中华稻蝗种群遗传多样性和遗传结构, 文章对我国7省市的7个中华稻蝗种群进行AFLP分析。选取7对引物扩增128个个体, 共产生336条带, 多态性条带292条, 占86.90%。结果表明: 中华稻蝗种群具有较高的遗传多样性水平, 其中海南万宁种群的遗传多样性高于其他各种群。Mantel检验(r=0.27, P=0.89)表明中华稻蝗各种群遗传距离与地理距离间没有显著相关性。种群间具有明显的遗传分化现象。UPGMA(Unweighted pair group method average)聚类分析显示, 7个中华稻蝗种群按地理距离分为3支: 北方北京昌平、山西太原和山东济宁为一支; 南方陕西汉中、湖南长沙和广西来宾为一支; 海南万宁单独为一支。上述结果以及PCA(Principal component analysis)分析均表明由于地理隔离中华稻蝗种群显示出明显的南北分化和岛屿大陆种群遗传分化现象。     

AFLP markers demonstrate local genetic differentiation between two indigenous oak species [ Quercus robur L. and Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.] in Flemish populations

The nuclear genetic variation within and between four sessile ( Q. petraea) and six pedunculate ( Q. robur) autochthonous Flemish oak populations was investigated with AFLP markers. One sessile and one pedunculate oak population were additionally screened for detailed leaf characteristics using an image analysis system. Principal coordinate analysis on the AFLP data classified the oaks in two main groups, according to their taxonomic status. No species-specific AFLP markers were found using four primer combinations, but marker frequency differences up to 71% were recorded between both species. Analysis of the genetic structure showed that the divergence between species, as observed by ordination, was significant. Both species revealed similar diversity levels. A smaller though significant differentiation was also revealed for both species among populations within species. Molecular and morphology based approaches showed a high degree of consistency. Screening of 60 AFLP primer combinations using a bulking strategy did not allow identifying species-specific markers, which supports the conclusions reached in previous studies. The distribution of genetic variability at the species and at the population level is discussed.     

Fine-scale patterns of genetic variation indicate non-equilibrium gene frequency divergence in the stream lily, Helmholtzia glaberrima

1. Helmholtzia glaberrima (Philydraceae) is a rare plant, endemic to streams of the border ranges of Queensland and New South Wales, Australia.
2. We used AFLP markers to investigate genetic diversity and patterns of differentiation among 19 populations of H. glaberrima (24 for demographic analyses), and also collected data on the size, distribution and altitude of populations.
3. Based on the distribution of populations, altitude significantly influenced the spatial arrangement of H. glaberrima along stream systems, with population size and frequency greatest in upstream habitat.
4. Patterns of genetic diversity within populations were not related to population size or distribution. Altitude and genetic diversity were related, with upstream and downstream populations having higher genetic diversity than mid-stream populations. Differentiation among populations was pronounced at all spatial scales and did not conform to a hierarchical model of gene flow.
5. Both genetic diversity and differentiation data sets indicated that strong non-equilibrium conditions associated with persistent founder effects, and not landscape characteristics, have shaped patterns of genetic diversity and differentiation in H. glaberrima . Patterns of distribution indicate that populations are distributed over a discontinuous ecological gradient, which becomes marginal at lower altitudes.     

AFLP and ISSR analysis reveals high genetic variation and inter-population differentiation in fragmented populations of the endangered Litsea szemaois (Lauraceae) from Southwest China

Litsea szemaois (Lauraceae) is an endemic and endangered species from the tropical rain forests of Xishuangbanna, southern Yunnan, SW China, but habitat fragmentation, especially exacerbated by rubber planting, has caused a decline in population size of the species. AFLP and ISSR were used to investigate the genetic diversity and population structure of eight populations from across its known distribution. Three AFLP and ten ISSR primer combinations produced a total of 203 and 77 unambiguous and repeatable bands respectively, of which 164 (80.8%) and 67 (87.0%) were polymorphic for the two markers. These two markers showed that Litsea szemaois exhibits comparatively high genetic diversity at species level (heterozygosity (hs) = 0.2109) relative to some other Lauraceae. Most of the genetic variation was partitioned within populations, but genetic differentiation between populations was significant and relatively high (Φ _st = 0.2420, θ^B = 0.1986) compared with other tropical plants. The genetic characteristics of L. szemaois may be related to its outbreeding system, insect pollination and fragmented distribution. Because L. szemaois is dioecious and slow to mature, ex situ conservation across its genetic diversity is unlikely to succeed, although seedlings grow well under cultivation. Thus, in situ conservation is very important for this endangered species, especially as only 133 adult individuals are known in the wild. In particular, the Nabanhe and Mandian populations should be given a high conservation priority due to their higher genetic diversity, larger population size and better field condition, but wider sampling is required across all populations to determine additional areas with significant genetic conservation value.     

Genetic Diversity and the Reintroduction of Meadow Species

Abstract: Restoration of formerly nutrient‐poor and species‐rich grasslands generally leads to an increase in species diversity. However, species without a persistent seed bank and with poor dispersal ability often do not re‐establish spontaneously. Here, reintroduction is an option. If existing populations are comparable in their genetic composition, any population will do. This is not the case if populations have local adaptations. Unfortunately, whether populations are adapted locally is not easily determined, in contrast to assessing differentiation using neutral genetic markers. We used AFLP to study genetic diversity of Cirsium dissectum and Succisa pratensis within and among several Junco‐Molinion plant communities in the Netherlands (up to 200 km apart) that were potential source populations, and followed the reintroduction using seeds from these populations. Also, vegetative growth phase characteristics of three populations of C. dissectum were analyzed under controlled conditions. Most of the genetic variation in these cross‐fertilizing species was found within populations. Small but significant genetic differences in band frequencies were found among populations (F_st 0.100 ‐ 0.135). The first generation of reintroduced plants contained less polymorphic bands than the source populations. The genetic differences caused by reintroduction using a limited number of seeds (founder effects) were significant in all except one case (F_st 0.012 ‐ 0.101 between source and corresponding reintroduced population), but the magnitude was smaller than the source population differentiation. In assignment tests, reintroduced populations resembled their source population more than any other population, but all populations contained sizeable proportions of plants that were assigned to most similar plants from other populations, indicating that the populations are only marginally distinct. Calculations show that reintroduction from more than one source population introduces significantly more polymorphic bands into the new population, capitalizing on the existence of band frequency differences among populations.