Characterization of dihydroflavonol 4-reductases for recombinant plant pigment biosynthesis applications

Anthocyanins are colorful plant pigments with promising applications as pharmaceuticals and colorants. In order to engineer efficient pigment biosynthesis in Escherichia coli, the activities of various dihydroflavonol 4-reductases (DFRs) were characterized for the three primary dihydroflavonol substrates. The biochemical assays demonstrated variable DFR activities for dihydroflavonol with one B-ring hydroxyl group, the precursor of pelargonidin derivatives. In contrast, dihydroflavonols with two and three B-ring hydroxylation were metabolized with comparable efficiency. Furthermore, the catalysis of DFR for the secondary substrates, flavanones, also depended on the number of B-ring hydroxyl groups. Engineering the expression of the DFR clones together with plant-specific 4-coumaroyl:CoA ligase, chalcone synthase, chalcone isomerase, and flavanone 3-hydroxylase in E. coli resulted in the synthesis of pelargonidin at various levels, from p-coumaric acids. The identification of a robust DFR from this study can also be used for engineering recombinant synthesis of other bioactive flavonoids, such as flavan-3-ols.     

Dihydroflavonol 4-Reductase Genes Encode Enzymes with Contrasting Substrate Specificity and Show Divergent Gene Expression Profiles in Fragaria Species

During fruit ripening, strawberries show distinct changes in the flavonoid classes that accumulate, switching from the formation of flavan 3-ols and flavonols in unripe fruits to the accumulation of anthocyanins in the ripe fruits. In the common garden strawberry (Fragaria×ananassa) this is accompanied by a distinct switch in the pattern of hydroxylation demonstrated by the almost exclusive accumulation of pelargonidin based pigments. In Fragaria vesca the proportion of anthocyanins showing one (pelargonidin) and two (cyanidin) hydroxyl groups within the B-ring is almost equal. We isolated two dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) cDNA clones from strawberry fruits, which show 82% sequence similarity. The encoded enzymes revealed a high variability in substrate specificity. One enzyme variant did not accept DHK (with one hydroxyl group present in the B-ring), whereas the other strongly preferred DHK as a substrate. This appears to be an uncharacterized DFR variant with novel substrate specificity. Both DFRs were expressed in the receptacle and the achenes of both Fragaria species and the DFR2 expression profile showed a pronounced dependence on fruit development, whereas DFR1 expression remained relatively stable. There were, however, significant differences in their relative rates of expression. The DFR1/DFR2 expression ratio was much higher in the Fragaria×ananassa and enzyme preparations from F.×ananassa receptacles showed higher capability to convert DHK than preparations from F. vesca. Anthocyanin concentrations in the F.×ananassa cultivar were more than twofold higher and the cyanidin:pelargonidin ratio was only 0.05 compared to 0.51 in the F. vesca cultivar. The differences in the fruit colour of the two Fragaria species can be explained by the higher expression of DFR1 in F.×ananassa as compared to F. vesca, a higher enzyme efficiency (K _cat/K _m values) of DFR1 combined with the loss of F3’H activity late in fruit development of F.×ananassa.     

The B-ring hydroxylation pattern of intermediates of anthocyanin synthesis in pelargonidin-and cyanidin-producing lines of Matthiola incana

In flowers of Matthiola incana, the B-ring hydroxylation pattern of anthocyanins is controlled by the locus b. Recessive genotypes produce pelargonidin and genotypes with wild-type alleles cyanidin as the aglycone. Supplementation experiments on acyanic flowers using extracts of pelargonidin-and cyanidin-producing flowers, respectively, showed not only the presence of compounds with a precursor function for anthocyanin synthesis in the cyanic flowers but also differences in the B-ring hydroxylation pattern of these compounds. Chromatographic investigations proved that flavanones and dihydroflavonols occur in extracts of cyanic flowers. Naringenin, dihydrokaempferol, and their 7-glucosides could be demonstrated in all flower extracts, but in extracts of cyanidin-producing flowers, dihydroquercetin and a further 3, 4-hydroxylated dihydroflavonol, tentatively identified as dihydroquercetin 3-glycoside, were additionally found. In no case, however, could eriodictyol be detected. From these results and from the ready hydroxylation of dihydrokaempferol to dihydroquercetin in a white mutant line of Matthiola incana, it can be concluded that introduction of the 3-hydroxyl group of anthocyanins is not achieved by specific incorporation of caffeic acid during synthesis of the flavonoid skeleton, but by hydroxylation at the dihydroflavonol stage.     

Redirection of anthocyanin synthesis in Osteospermum hybrida by a two-enzyme manipulation strategy

Modern biotechnology has developed powerful tools for genetic engineering and flower colours are an excellent object to study possibilities and limitations of engineering strategies. Osteospermum hybrida became a popular ornamental plant within the last 20 years. Many cultivars display rose to lilac flower colours mainly based on delphinidin-derived anthocyanins. The predominant synthesis of delphinidin derivatives is referred to a strong endogenous flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase (F3'5'H) activity. Furthermore, since dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) of Osteospermum does not convert dihydrokaempferol (DHK) to leucopelargonidin, synthesis of pelargonidin-based anthocyanins is naturally not realised. In order to redirect anthocyanin biosynthesis in Osteospermum towards pelargonidin derivatives, we introduced cDNAs coding for DFRs which efficiently convert DHK to LPg. But neither the expression of Gerbera hybrida DFR nor of Fragaria x ananassa DFR - the latter is characterised by an unusual high substrate preference for DHK - altered anthocyanin composition in flowers of transgenic plants. However, chemical inhibition of F3'5'H activity in ray florets of dfr transgenic plants resulted in the accumulation of pelargonidin derivatives. Accordingly, retransformation of a transgenic plant expressing Gerbera DFR with a construct for RNAi-mediated suppression of F3'5'H activity resulted in double transgenic plants accumulating predominantly pelargonidin derivatives in flowers.     

Crystal structure of grape dihydroflavonol 4-reductase, a key enzyme in flavonoid biosynthesis

The nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-dependent enzyme dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) catalyzes a late step in the biosynthesis of anthocyanins and condensed tannins, two flavonoid classes of importance to plant survival and human nutrition. This enzyme has been widely investigated in many plant species, but little is known about its structural and biochemical properties. To provide a basis for detailed structure-function studies, the crystal structure of Vitis vinifera DFR, heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli, has been determined at 1.8 Å resolution. The 3D structure of the ternary complex obtained with the oxidized form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate and dihydroquercetin, one of the DFR substrates, presents common features with the short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase family, i.e., an N-terminal domain adopting a Rossmann fold and a variable C-terminal domain, which participates in substrate binding. The structure confirms the importance of the 131-156 region, which lines the substrate binding site and enlightens the role of a specific residue at position 133 (Asn or Asp), assumed to control substrate recognition. The activity of the wild-type enzyme and its variant N133D has been quantified in vitro, using dihydroquercetin or dihydrokaempferol. Our results demonstrate that position 133 cannot be solely responsible for the recognition of the B-ring hydroxylation pattern of dihydroflavonols.     

RNAi抑制过氧化物酶基因Rsprx1表达促进萝卜花青素的积累

过氧化物酶是一类广泛存在于生物中的氧化还原酶,被认为参与植物花青素的代谢．本实验利用RNAi技术,干扰萝卜过氧化物酶基因Rsprx1表达. 结果表明, RNAi干扰载体的萝卜植株中过氧化物酶基因(Rsprx1)表达被抑制,过氧化物酶活性显著降低,过氧化物酶同工酶条带减少|而花青素含量在处理第9 d达到最大值|花青苷种类和含量有较大变化: 天竺葵素-3-阿魏酰葡糖苷-5-丙二酰基葡糖苷、天竺葵素-3-ρ-香豆酰二葡糖苷-5-丙二酰基葡糖苷、天竺葵素-3-阿魏酰二葡糖苷-5-丙二酰基葡糖苷和天竺葵素-3-二ρ-香豆酰二葡糖苷5-丙二酰基葡糖苷含量升高; 天竺葵素-3-二葡糖苷-5-葡糖苷、天竺葵素-3-葡糖苷-5-葡糖苷和天竺葵素-3-酰化二葡糖苷-5-葡糖苷含量降低|花青素合成相关基因（Chs、Chi、Dfr、F3h和Ldox）及转录因子（Tt8）的mRNA表达水平在RNAi处理后早期有明显上调．这些结果均表明,萝卜过氧化物酶Rsprx1参与花青素的合成代谢．     

Flavonoid genes of pear (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pyrus communis</Emphasis>)

Pear (Pyrus sp.) is a major fruit crop of temperate regions with increasing extent of cultivation. Pear flavonoids contribute to its fruit color, pathogen defense, and are health beneficial ingredients of the fruits. Comparative Southern analyses with apple (Malus x domestica) cDNAs showed comparable genomic organization of flavonoid genes of both related genera. A homology-based cloning approach was used to obtain the cDNAs of most enzymes of the main flavonoid pathway of Pyrus: phenylalanine ammonia lyase, chalcone synthase, chalcone isomerase, flavanone 3β-hydroxylase, flavonol synthase, dihydroflavonol 4-reductase, leucoanthocyanidin reductase 1 and 2, anthocyanidin synthase, anthocyanidin reductase, and UDP-glucose : flavonoid 7-O-glucosyltransferase. The substrate specificities of the recombinant enzymes expressed in yeast were determined for physiological and non-physiological substrates and found to be in general agreement with the characteristic pear flavonoid metabolite pattern of mainly B-ring dihydroxylated anthocyanins, flavonols, catechins, and flavanones. Furthermore, significant differences in substrate specificities and gene copy numbers in comparison to Malus were identified. Cloning of the cDNAs and studying the enzymes of the Pyrus flavonoid pathway is an essential task toward a comprehensive knowledge of Pyrus polyphenol metabolism. It also elucidates evolutionary patterns of flavonoid/polyphenol pathways in the Rosaceae, which allocate several important crop plants.     

Design,synthesis and SAR study of hydroxychalcone inhibitors of human β-secretase (BACE1)

According to the structural characteristics of isoliquiritigenin from Glycyrrhiza uralensis, a series of hydroxychalcones has been designed, synthesized and evaluated for their in vitro inhibitory activities of β-secretase (BACE1). Structure-activity relationship study suggested that inhibitory activity against BACE1 was governed to a greater extent by the hydroxyl substituent on A- and B-ring of the chalcone, and the most active compound was substituted with four hydroxyl group (17, IC₅₀?=?0.27 μM).     

Excision of transposable elements from the chalcone isomerase and dihydroflavonol 4-reductase genes may contribute to the variegation of the yellow-flowered carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus)

In the "Rhapsody" cultivar of the carnation, which bears white flowers variegated with red flecks and sectors, a transposable element, dTdic1, belonging to the Ac/Ds superfamily, was found within the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) gene. The red flecks and sectors of "Rhapsody" may be attributable to a reversion to DFR activity after the excision of dTdic1. The yellow color of the carnation petals is attributed to the synthesis and accumulation of chalcone 2'-glucoside. In several of the carnation cultivars that bear yellow flowers variegated with white flecks and sectors, both the chalcone isomerase (CHI) and DFR genes are disrupted by dTdic1.     

Production of red-flowered plants by genetic engineering of multiple flavonoid biosynthetic genes

Orange- to red-colored flowers are difficult to produce by conventional breeding techniques in some floricultural plants. This is due to the deficiency in the formation of pelargonidin, which confers orange to red colors, in their flowers. Previous researchers have reported that brick-red colored flowers can be produced by introducing a foreign dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) with different substrate specificity in Petunia hybrida, which does not accumulate pelargonidin pigments naturally. However, because these experiments used dihydrokaempferol (DHK)-accumulated mutants as transformation hosts, this strategy cannot be applied directly to other floricultural plants. Thus in this study, we attempted to produce red-flowered plants by suppressing two endogenous genes and expressing one foreign gene using tobacco as a model plant. We used a chimeric RNAi construct for suppression of two genes (flavonol synthase [FLS] and flavonoid 3′-hydroxylase [F3′H]) and expression of the gerbera DFR gene in order to accumulate pelargonidin pigments in tobacco flowers. We successfully produced red-flowered tobacco plants containing high amounts of additional pelargonidin as confirmed by HPLC analysis. The flavonol content was reduced in the transgenic plants as expected, although complete inhibition was not achieved. Expression analysis also showed that reduction of the two-targeted genes and expression of the foreign gene occurred simultaneously. These results demonstrate that flower color modification can be achieved by multiple gene regulation without use of mutants if the vector constructs are designed resourcefully. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

二氢黄酮醇 4 还原酶在花青素合成中的功能及调控研究进展

植物色素主要有花青素、类胡萝卜素和生物碱类色素三大类,其中花青素是决定大部分被子植物组织或器官颜色的重要色素。花青素通过类黄酮途径合成,该途径是生物学上研究较多且较为清楚的代谢途径之一。近年来的研究表明,在该途径中除了查尔酮合成酶(chalcone synthase,CHS)、查尔酮异构酶(chalcone isomerase,CHI)和黄烷酮-3-羟化酶(flavanone-3-hydrolase,F3H)起着关键作用外,二氢黄酮醇-4-还原酶(dihydroflavonol 4-reductase,DFR)对花青素的合成也至关重要。DFR可催化3种二氢黄酮醇和2种黄烷酮生成5种不同的花青素前体,且DFR基因家族不同成员对各个底物的催化效率不同,因此它在一定程度上决定着植物中花青素的种类和含量,从而影响植物组织或器官的颜色。该文对近年来国内外有关DFR在花青素合成过程中的生物学功能与调控,包括DFR的特征、作用机制和系统进化以及环境、转录因子和一些结构基因与DFR的关系等方面的研究进展进行了综述,以期为DFR今后的研究和利用基因工程改变植物组织或器官的颜色提供理论依据。     

Chalcone cyclase and flavonoid biosynthesis in grapefruit

A chalcone cyclase (CC), which acts unidirectionally upon the chalcone-flavanone equilibrium reaction, was isolated from immature grapefruit. The enzyme required neohesperidose at C-4′ of the chalcone A-ring and a free, unhindered hydroxyl group at C-4 of the B-ring for activity. The CC bound, but did not cyclize, prunin chalcone (K_i= 2.5 × 10^?5 M). The results suggest that the intermediates that form the B-ring of chalcones are hydroxylated prior to chalcone formation, that chalcones are glycosylated during their formation, and that methylation occurs after cyclization of the chalcones to flavanones.     

紫背天葵叶片中花青素种类及合成调控基因转录组分析

为获取紫背天葵(Cynura bicolor DC.)叶片中花青素种类及其合成调控基因等信息,该试验以紫背天葵叶背面紫色以及经处理叶背面几乎全绿(对照)的叶片为材料,进行转录组测序分析,同时进行6个相关差异表达基因的qRT-PCR分析和6种花青素苷元的HPLC检测,以揭示紫背天葵特有的花青素苷元及其合成调控关键基因信息。结果表明:(1)在紫背天葵中共获得14个花青素苷元及32个花青素合成调控基因信息,其中表达量差异显著下调的4个基因为Pg(c11692)、Cy(c42112)、ANS(c38551)和3GT(c9064),表达量差异显著上调的2个基因是D FR(c35961)和3GT(c20283)。(2)qRT-PCR检测结果显示,上述6个基因在2种紫背天葵叶中的表达趋势(上调或下调)与转录组测序结果完全一致,但转录组测序检测到的表达趋势差异倍数比qRT-PCR检测结果更加明显。(3)HPLC分析显示,紫背天葵叶中均未检测到Dp、Pt、Pn及Mv等4类花青素苷元,但紫背天葵叶中富含Cy花青素苷元,且背面紫色的叶中Cy类花青素苷元含量(62.21 mg/kg)显著高于绿色叶对照(6.86 mg/kg);背面紫色和全绿叶中的Pg花青素苷元含量均低于0.43 mg/kg。研究推测,Cy和Pg花青素苷元在绿叶紫背天葵(对照)中含量显著降低可能是因为存在1个ANS和1个3GT正调控以及1个DFR和1个3GT负调控所致。     

Flavonoid synthesis in Petunia hybrida: partial characterization of dihydroflavonol-4-reductase genes

In this paper we describe the organization and expression of the genes encoding the flavonoid-biosynthetic enzyme dihydroflavonol-4-reductase (DFR) in Petunia hybrida. A nearly full-size DFR cDNA clone (1.5kb), isolated from a corolla-specific cDNA library was compared at the nucleotide level with the pallida gene from Antirrhinum majus and at the amino acid level with enzymes encoded by the pallida gene and the A1 gene from Zea mays.The P. hybrida and A. majus DFR genes transcribed in flowers contain 5 introns, at identical positions; the three introns of the A1 gene from Z. mays coincide with first three introns of the other two species. P. hybrida line V30 harbours three DFR genes (A, B, C) which were mapped by RFLP analysis on three different chromosomes (IV, II and VI respectively).Steady-state levels of DFR mRNA in the line V30 follow the same pattern during development as chalcone synthase (CHS) and chalcone flavanone isomerase (CHI) mRNA. Six mutants that accumulate dihydroflavonols in mature flowers were subjected to Northern blot analysis for the presence of DFR mRNA. Five of these mutants lack detectable levels of DFR mRNA. Four of these five also show drastically reduced levels of activity for the enzyme UDPG: flavonoid-3-O-glucosyltransferase (UFGT), which carries out the next step in flavonoid biosynthesis; these mutants might be considered as containing lesions in regulatory genes, controlling the expression of the structural genes in this part of the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway. Only the an6 mutant shows no detectable DFR mRNA but a wild-type level for UFGT activity. Since both an6 and DFR-A are located on chromosome IV and DFR-A is transcribed in floral tissues, it is postulated that the An6 locus contains the DFR structural gene. The an9 mutant shows a wild-type level of DFR mRNA and a wild-type UFGT activity.     

Isolation of Dihydroflavonol 4-Reductase cDNA Clones from Angelonia x angustifolia and Heterologous Expression as GST Fusion Protein in Escherichia coli

Blue Angelonia × angustifolia flowers can show spontaneous mutations resulting in white/blue and white flower colourations. In such a white line, a loss of dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) activity was observed whereas chalcone synthase and flavanone 3-hydroxylase activity remained unchanged. Thus, cloning and characterization of a DFR of Angelonia flowers was carried out for the first time. Two full length DFR cDNA clones, Ang.DFR1 and Ang.DFR2, were obtained from a diploid chimeral white/blue Angelonia × angustifolia which demonstrated a 99% identity in their translated amino acid sequence. In comparison to Ang.DFR2, Ang.DFR1 was shown to contain an extra proline in a proline-rich region at the N-terminus along with two exchanges at the amino acids 12 and 26 in the translated amino acid sequence. The recombinant Ang.DFR2 obtained by heterologous expression in yeast was functionally active catalyzing the NADPH dependent reduction of dihydroquercetin (DHQ) and dihydromyricetin (DHM) to leucocyanidin and leucomyricetin, respectively. Dihydrokaempferol (DHK) in contrast was not accepted as a substrate despite the presence of asparagine in a position assumed to determine DHK acceptance. We show that substrate acceptance testing of DFRs provides biased results for DHM conversion if products are extracted with ethyl acetate. Recombinant Ang.DFR1 was inactive and functional activity could only be restored via exchanges of the amino acids in position 12 and 26 as well as the deletion of the extra proline. E. coli transformation of the pGEX-6P-1 vector harbouring the Ang.DFR2 and heterologous expression in E. coli resulted in functionally active enzymes before and after GST tag removal. Both the GST fusion protein and purified DFR minus the GST tag could be stored at −80°C for several months without loss of enzyme activity and demonstrated identical substrate specificity as the recombinant enzyme obtained from heterologous expression in yeast.     

Growth-promoting nitrogen nutrition affects flavonoid biosynthesis in young apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) leaves

Enhanced shoot growth and a decrease in flavonoid concentration in apple trees grown under high nitrogen (N) supply was observed in previous studies, along with increasing scab susceptibility of cultivar "Golden Delicious" after high N nutrition. Several hypotheses have suggested that there is a trade-off between primary and secondary metabolism because of competition for common substrates, but nothing is known about regulation at the enzyme level. In this study, a set of experiments was performed to elucidate the effect of N nutrition on the activities of key enzymes involved in flavonoid biosynthesis (phenylalanine ammonia-lyase [PAL], chalcone synthase/chalcone isomerase [CHS/CHI}, flavanone 3-hydroxylase [FHT], flavonol synthase [FLS], dihydroflavonol 4-reductase [DFR]) and the accumulation of different groups of phenylpropanoids. The inhibition of flavonoid accumulation by high N nutrition could be confirmed, but the influence of N supply on the flavonoid enzymes CHS/CHI, FHT, DFR, and FLS was not evident. However, PAL activity seems to be downregulated, thus forming a bottleneck resulting in a generally decreased flavonoid accumulation. Furthermore, the response of the scab-resistant cultivar "Rewena" to high N nutrition was not as strong as that of the susceptible cultivar "Golden Delicious".     

Analysis of the Expression of Anthocyanin Pathway Genes in Developing Vitis vinifera L. cv Shiraz Grape Berries and the Implications for Pathway Regulation

Anthocyanin synthesis in Vitis vinifera L. cv Shiraz grape berries began 10 weeks postflowering and continued throughout berry ripening. Expression of seven genes of the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway (phenylalanine ammonia lyase [PAL], chalcone synthase [CHS], chalcone isomerase [CHI], flavanone-3-hydroxylase [F3H], dihydroflavonol 4-reductase [DFR], leucoanthocyanidin dioxygen-ase [LDOX], and UDP glucose-flavonoid 3-o-glucosyl transferase [UFGT]) was determined. In flowers and grape berry skins, expression of all of the genes, except UFGT, was detected up to 4 weeks postflowering, followed by a reduction in this expression 6 to 8 weeks postflowering. Expression of CHS, CHI, F3H, DFR, LDOX, and UFGT then increased 10 weeks postflowering, coinciding with the onset of anthocyanin synthesis. In grape berry flesh, no PAL or UFGT expression was detected at any stage of development, but CHS, CHI, F3H, DFR, and LDOX were expressed up to 4 weeks postflowering. These results indicate that the onset of anthocyanin synthesis in ripening grape berry skins coincides with a coordinated increase in expression of a number of genes in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway, suggesting the involvement of regulatory genes. UFGT is regulated independently of the other genes, suggesting that in grapes the major control point in this pathway is later than that observed in maize, petunia, and snapdragon.     

Extension-growth responses and expression of flavonoid biosynthesis genes in the Arabidopsis hy4 mutant

The hy4 mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana(L.) Heynh. was previously shown to be impaired in the suppression of hypocotyl extension specifically by blue light. We report here that hy4 is altered in a range of blue-light-mediated extension-growth responses in various organs in seedlings and mature plants: it shows greater length of bolted stems, increased petiole extension and increased leaf width and area in blue light compared to the wild type. The hy4 mutant shows decreased cotyledon expansion in both red and blue light compared to the wild type. Anthocyanin formation and the expression of several flavonoid biosynthesis genes is stimulated by blue light in the wild type but to a much lower extent in hy4. The results indicate that the HY4 gene product is concerned with the perception of blue light in a range of extension-growth and gene-expression responses in Arabidopsis.Abbreviations DFR dihydroflavonol reductase - CHS chalcone synthase - CHI chalcone isomerase We thank the UK Agricultural and Food Research Council for supporting this work through the award of a research grant to G.I.J. We are grateful to Robert Brown for excellent technical assistance and Drs B.W. Shirley (Department of Biology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, USA), C.D. Silflow (Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, USA) and I.E. Somssich (Department of Biochemistry, Max-Planck-Institut, Köln, Germany) for providing plasmid DNA.