Differences in diet and trophic interactions of Patagonian carnivores between areas with mostly native or exotic prey

The prey base for Patagonian carnivores has been altered greatly over the past 150 years due to widespread overgrazing by livestock, invasions by exotic wildlife, and hunting. On ranches in northern Patagonia carnivores consume mostly exotic species, and native herbivores are ecologically extinct in their role as prey. In this study we compare diets of the culpeo (Lycalopex culpaeus), chilla (L. griseus), puma (Puma concolor), Geoffroy's cat (Leopardus geoffroyi), colocolo (L. colocolo), and hog-nosed skunks (Conepatus chinga and C. humboldtii) in a reserve with a mostly native prey base to their diets on the ranches, and evaluate how differences in prey bases affect trophic interactions among carnivores. Carnivores in the reserve consumed mostly native prey. Dietary overlap among carnivores was not significant on the reserve, but was highly significant on the ranches. This homogenization of diets where densities of native species are reduced could lead to stronger negative interactions among carnivores, altering the composition of the carnivore assemblage to the detriment of the more specialized species. Study of carnivore diets may be a relatively quick way to evaluate the conservation status and ecological functionality of prey assemblages in Patagonia and other areas where these have been altered.     

The effects of local and landscape-scale habitat characteristics and prey availability on corridor use by carnivores: A comparison of two contrasting farmlands

Corridors are thought to reduce the negative biological effects of habitat loss and fragmentation by providing connectivity and suitable habitat for many species, including carnivores. Although corridor structure maintenance is considered to be an essential tool for carnivore conservation in a human-dominated landscape, surprisingly little is known about the effects of different factors at various spatial scales. The main aim of this study was to determine how local and landscape-scale habitat characteristics and prey availability influence the corridor use by carnivores in a Central European agricultural landscape. Moreover we investigated carnivore corridor occurrence in two contrasting landscapes that differ in level of habitat loss and fragmentation to evaluate relative effect of species-specific response to regional context. Results show that the availability of principal prey (small mammals) was the most crucial factor affecting carnivore corridor use. Other important factors influencing corridor use were corridor width (positive), proportion of shrubs (positive) and presence of local, low-traffic, roads (positive). Single species models revealed interspecific and area-specific differences in carnivore preference at both spatial scales. Our findings confirm the general importance of multi-level approach to evaluating species-specific habitat requirements as a crucial tool for determining suitable methods for carnivore efficient conservation in human-dominated agricultural landscape.     

Predictors of mammal species richness in KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

The management of multi-functional landscapes warrants better knowledge of environment-richness associations at varying disturbance levels and habitat gradients. Intensive land-use patterns for agricultural purposes lead to fragmentation of natural habitat resulting in biodiversity loss that can be measured using landscape metrics to assess mammalian richness. Since carnivores and herbivores are likely to show different responses to disturbance, we calculated carnivore, non-carnivore, and total mammal species richness from camera surveys using a first order Jackknife Estimator. Richness was compared along a habitat gradient comprising coastal forest, Acacia thicket, and highland in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We used standardized OLS regression models to identify climatic and disturbance variables, and landscape metrics as predictors of species richness. The estimated total and non-carnivore species richness were highest in coastal forest, while carnivore species richness was highest in highland followed by coastal forest and Acacia thicket. Average monthly maximum temperature was a significant predictor of all richness groups, and precipitation of the wettest month and isothermality determined total and non-carnivore species richness, respectively. These climatic variables possibly limit species distribution because of physiological tolerance of the species. Total mammal richness was determined by mean shape (+) and habitat division (−) while diversity (+) and patch richness (−) explained carnivore species richness. Mean shape index (+) influenced non-carnivore richness. However, habitat division and patch richness negatively influenced total mammal richness. Though habitat patch size and contiguity had a weak positive prediction, these metrics demonstrated the importance of habitat connectivity for maintaining mammal richness. The identification of these climatic and landscape patterns is important to facilitate future landscape management for mammal conservation in forest-mosaics.     

Seasonal occupancy of sympatric larger carnivores in the southern San Andres Mountains,south-central New Mexico,USA

We investigated factors facilitating coexistence of pumas (Puma concolor), coyotes (Canis latrans), and bobcats (Lynx rufus) in the arid San Andres Mountains of south-central New Mexico, during the season (winter and spring, prior to the annual monsoon) of greatest resource stress. We established a camera-trapping grid in the San Andres, 2007–2011, and modeled occupancy of the three carnivores as a function of habitat, prey, and presence of the other carnivore species. Species interaction factors were >1.3 for each pair of carnivores, and the presence of the other carnivore species never significantly influenced occupancy of any other carnivore. Similarly, occupancy of the San Andres landscape was positively correlated among all carnivores. Occupancy of pumas was most influenced by proximity of water; coyote occupancy was influenced by terrain ruggedness and presence of medium (primarily lagomorph) prey, and bobcat occupancy was influence primarily small prey and proximity to water. The three carnivores also did not show temporal partitioning in use of habitats. Rather than segregation driven by competition, predation, or despotism, our results appeared to reflect preferences for differing habitat characteristics between ambush and cursorial predators and preferred habitats for travel.     

Tiger and leopard co-occurrence: intraguild interactions in response to human and livestock disturbance

Intraguild interactions have important implications for carnivore demography and conservation. Differences in how predators respond to different forms of disturbance might alter their interaction patterns. We sought to understand how human and livestock disturbance impact co-occurrence of sympatric large carnivores such as tiger (Panthera tigris) and leopard (P. pardus) and thereby mediate the intraguild interaction pattern to enable coexistence of the species in a human-dominated landscape. We surveyed 361 locations in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, to examine how prey abundance and disturbance factors such as human and livestock presence might influence habitat use by tigers and leopards independently and when co-occurring. Single-species single-season models and two-species single-season models were developed to examine hypotheses on unconditional detection and occupancy and species interaction respectively. Pervasive human use of the park had negative impacts on tiger occupancy while the abundance of prey had a positive influence. Despite significant prey overlap between tigers and leopards, none of the native prey species predicted leopard habitat occupancy. However, habitats used extensively by livestock were also used by leopards. Further, we found strong evidence of intraguild competition. For instance tiger occupancy was higher in prey-rich areas and leopard occupancy was low in the sites where tigers were present. These findings, and a species interaction factor of < 1 clearly indicate that leopards avoid tigers, but their use of areas of disturbance enables them to persist in fringe habitats. We provide empirical evidence of how intraguild interaction may result in habitat segregation between competing carnivores, while also showing that human and livestock use of the landscape create disturbance patterns that facilitate co-occurrence of the predators. Thus, because large carnivores compete, some disturbance may mediate coexistence in small protected areas. Understanding such interactions can help address important conservation challenges associated with maintaining diverse carnivore communities in small or disturbed landscapes.     

The role of exotic mammals in the diet of native carnivores from South America

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Carnivore mammals in a fragmented landscape in northeast of São Paulo State,Brazil

São Paulo is the most developed state in Brazil and little of its native vegetation remains. In Luiz Antonio and Santa Rita do Passa Quatro municipalities, only small fragments of cerrado (Brazilian savanna) physiognomies (cerradão, cerrado sensu stricto) and of semideciduous forest have been left, surrounded by eucalyptus silviculture and sugar-cane agriculture. However, that vegetation mosaic still shelters large mammals, including several carnivore species. To detect the carnivores present in such a mosaic area (50,000 ha), and to find out how they use the landscape, we recorded them through 21 camera traps and 21 track plots, during 18 months. Species richness, diversity and relative frequency were evaluated according to the habitat. Ten species were recorded, some of them locally threatened to extinction (Puma concolor, Leopardus pardalis, Chrysocyon brachyurus). Species diversity did not significantly differ among fragments, and although most species preferred one or another habitat, the carnivore community as a whole explored all the study area regardless of the vegetation cover; eucalyptus plantations were as used by the carnivores as the native fragments. Therefore, it seems possible to maintain such animals in agricultural landscapes, where some large native fragments are left and the matrix is permeable to native fauna.     

Use of agroecosystem matrix habitats by mammalian carnivores (Carnivora): a global‐scale analysis

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Hunting,Exotic Carnivores,and Habitat Loss: Anthropogenic Effects on a Native Carnivore Community,Madagascar

The wide-ranging, cumulative, negative effects of anthropogenic disturbance, including habitat degradation, exotic species, and hunting, on native wildlife has been well documented across a range of habitats worldwide with carnivores potentially being the most vulnerable due to their more extinction prone characteristics. Investigating the effects of anthropogenic pressures on sympatric carnivores is needed to improve our ability to develop targeted, effective management plans for carnivore conservation worldwide. Utilizing photographic, line-transect, and habitat sampling, as well as landscape analyses and village-based bushmeat hunting surveys, we provide the first investigation of how multiple forms of habitat degradation (fragmentation, exotic carnivores, human encroachment, and hunting) affect carnivore occupancy across Madagascar’s largest protected area: the Masoala-Makira landscape. We found that as degradation increased, native carnivore occupancy and encounter rates decreased while exotic carnivore occupancy and encounter rates increased. Feral cats (Felis species) and domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) had higher occupancy than half of the native carnivore species across Madagascar’s largest protected landscape. Bird and small mammal encounter rates were negatively associated with exotic carnivore occupancy, but positively associated with the occupancy of four native carnivore species. Spotted fanaloka (Fossa fossana) occupancy was constrained by the presence of exotic feral cats and exotic small Indian civet (Viverricula indica). Hunting was intense across the four study sites where hunting was studied, with the highest rates for the small Indian civet (x¯ = 90 individuals consumed/year), the ring-tailed vontsira (Galidia elegans) (x¯ = 58 consumed/year), and the fosa (Cryptoprocta ferox) (x¯ = 31 consumed/year). Our modeling results suggest hunters target intact forest where carnivore occupancy, abundance, and species richness, are highest. These various anthropogenic pressures and their effects on carnivore populations, especially increases in exotic carnivores and hunting, have wide-ranging, global implications and demand effective management plans to target the influx of exotic carnivores and unsustainable hunting that is affecting carnivore populations across Madagascar and worldwide.     

Influence of multi-scale landscape structure on the occurrence of carnivorous mammals in a human-modified savanna, Brazil

São Paulo is the most developed state in Brazil and contains few fragments of native ecosystems, generally surrounded by intensive agriculture lands. Despite this, some areas still shelter large native animals. We aimed at understanding how medium and large carnivores use a mosaic landscape of forest/savanna and agroecosystems, and how the species respond to different landscape parameters (percentage of landcover and edge density), in a multi-scale perspective. The response variables were: species richness, carnivore frequency and frequency for the three most recorded species (Puma concolor, Chrysocyon brachyurus and Leopardus pardalis). We compared 11 competing models using Akaike's information criterion (AIC) and assessed model support using weight of AIC. Concurrent models were combinations of landcover types (native vegetation, “cerrado” formations, “cerradão” and eucalypt plantation), landscape feature (percentage of landcover and edge density) and spatial scale. Herein, spatial scale refers to the radius around a sampling point defining a circular landscape. The scales analyzed were 250 (fine), 1,000 (medium) and 2,000 m (coarse). The shape of curves for response variables (linear, exponential and power) was also assessed. Our results indicate that species with high mobility, P. concolor and C. brachyurus, were best explained by edge density of the native vegetation at a coarse scale (2,000 m). The relationship between P. concolor and C. brachyurus frequency had a negative power-shaped response to explanatory variables. This general trend was also observed for species richness and carnivore frequency. Species richness and P. concolor frequency were also well explained by a second concurrent model: edge density of cerradão at the fine (250 m) scale. A different response was recorded for L. pardalis, as the frequency was best explained for the amount of cerradão at the fine (250 m) scale. The curve of response was linearly positive. The contrasting results (P. concolor and C. brachyurus vs L. pardalis) may be due to the much higher mobility of the two first species, in comparison with the third. Still, L. pardalis requires habitat with higher quality when compared with other two species. This study highlights the importance of considering multiple spatial scales when evaluating species responses to different habitats. An important and new finding was the prevalence of edge density over the habitat extension to explain overall carnivore distribution, a key information for planning and management of protected areas.     

Evaluation of Noninvasive Genetic Sampling Methods for Felid and Canid Populations

Abstract: Noninvasive sampling methods provide a means for studying species such as large mammalian carnivores that are difficult to survey using traditional techniques. Focusing on bobcat (Lynx rufus), we compared the effectiveness of noninvasive hair and scat genetic sampling in terms of field sample collection, species identification, and individual identification. We describe a novel hair-snare design and sampling protocol that successfully sampled 4 sympatric carnivore species, bobcat, mountain lion (Felis concolor), coyote (Canis latrans), and gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), in 3 habitat blocks in coastal southern California, USA. Scat surveys were also successful at sampling bobcats and other carnivores in the area. Hair and scat sampling methods had similar species identification success (81% and 87%, respectively) using mitochondrial DNA amplification and restriction enzyme digestion patterns. Therefore, for studies focused on the distribution and activity of a suite of carnivore species, we recommend a combination of noninvasive methodologies, for example, targeting hair and scat surveys toward species and sites where they are most effective. Because of a higher success rate for scat (85%) than for hair samples (10%) when using 4 microsatellite loci and a multiple-tubes approach to verify individual genotypes, we suggest scat sampling is a better choice for studies that require individual identification of bobcats.     

Response of carnivores to existing highway culverts and underpasses: implications for road planning and mitigation

Roads with high traffic volumes are a source of animal mortality, can disrupt normal animal movements and dispersal, and may represent a potentially serious threat to wildlife population stability and viability. Retrofitting existing structures built for other purposes (e.g., drainage culverts or small below-grade access roads) to facilitate wildlife crossing by animals and to reduce mortality may be expensive if modifications to the existing structures themselves were involved. However, the environmental context surrounding these structures may influence the willingness of animals to cross, and management of some of these attributes may enhance the attractiveness of these structures. Culverts and underpasses are two common structures along roads in Portugal. We quantified the response of small and medium-sized carnivores to the presence of both types of existing passages by determining: (1) frequency of use; (2) whether use differed by type of passage, and if so; (3) by examining if associated environmental attributes might explain the differences observed. We surveyed 57 different passages along 252 km of highway with a total sampling effort of 2,330 passage trap-days. The mean passage rate for carnivores combined was 0.7 complete passages per crossing structure per day. Crossings by weasel, polecat, otter, and wildcat were infrequent or absent. Red fox, badger, genet and Egyptian mongoose used the crossing structures regularly and without obvious preference; stone marten preferred underpasses. Regression analyses showed the frequency of use by carnivores varied with structural, landscape, road-related features, and human disturbance with 17 of 26 (65%) attributes being significant. Larger passages with vegetation close to the passage entrances, favorable habitat in the surrounding area, and low disturbance by humans were important key features to regular use by the guild of species studied. Mitigation planning in areas with ecological significance for carnivores will be beneficial. Structural attributes and human disturbances are more difficult or expensive to change, even though related significantly to crossing use. Management of vegetation at passage entrances and restricting human use near passages in carnivore suitable areas may substantially improve crossing attractiveness for the guild of carnivore species.     

Seasonal variation in prey preference,diet partitioning and niche breadth in a rich large carnivore guild

Large carnivore community structure is affected by direct and indirect interactions between intra-guild members. Co-existence between different species within a carnivore guild may occur through diet, habitat or temporal partitioning. Since carnivore species are highly dependent on availability and accessibility of prey, diet partitioning is potentially one of the most important mechanisms in allowing carnivores to co-exist. Intra-guild interactions may vary over time as carnivore prey preference and diet overlap can change due to seasonal changes in resource availability. We conducted scat analysis to compare the seasonal changes in prey preference, diet partitioning and niche breadth of four large carnivore species, namely leopard Panthera pardus, spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta, brown hyena Parahyaena brunnea and wild dog Lycaon pictus in central Tuli, Botswana. Large carnivores in central Tuli display a high dietary overlap, with spotted hyena and brown hyena displaying almost complete dietary overlap and the other carnivore species displaying slightly lower but still significant dietary overlap. Dietary niche breadth for both hyena species was high possibly due to their flexible foraging strategies, including scavenging, while leopard and wild dog showed a relatively low niche breadth, suggesting a more specialised diet. High dietary overlap in central Tuli is possibly explained by the high abundance of prey species in the area thereby reducing competition pressure between carnivore species. Our research highlights the need to assess the influence of diet partitioning in structuring large carnivore communities across multiple study sites, by demonstrating that in prey rich environments, the need for diet partitioning by carnivores to avoid competition may be limited.     

European human‐dominated landscapes provide ample space for the recolonization of large carnivore populations under future land change scenarios

Europe is currently being re‐colonized by large carnivore species such as brown bear Ursus arctos, Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx and grey wolf Canis lupus. Approximately one‐third of Europe currently hosts at least one of these large carnivore species: they show permanent occurrence in some regions and sporadic occurrence without reproduction in others. We investigated potential future range expansions of these three large carnivores using three different analyses. First, we compared niche overlap between the historical, current permanent and current sporadic occurrences using n‐dimensional hypervolumes. Second, we identified the environmental variables that best explain differences between current sporadic and permanent occurrences through multi‐model inference. Third, we projected permanent occurrences into the future across a range of land‐use change scenarios. We also determined future refuges (i.e. sub‐optimal habitat in the environmental model, good habitat in the human disturbance model) and ecological traps (i.e. good habitat in the environmental model, sub‐optimal habitat in the human disturbance model). In the three large carnivore species, ecological niche overlap was higher between historical and current permanent occurrences than between historical and current sporadic occurrences, and we also found low ecological niche overlap between current permanent and sporadic occurrences. Between 20 and 24% (corresponding to 86 800 to 173 200 km²) of the current sporadic occurrences could result in permanent settlement of large carnivores in the year 2040, while 17–24% (corresponding to 122 200 to 104 100 km²) and 2.7–4.6% (corresponding to 11 800 to 28 400 km²) of the current sporadic occurrences are likely to become refuges and ecological traps, respectively. Factors affecting range expansion are human activities, which were negatively related to permanent occurrences of all three species. In light of our results, human‐dominated European landscapes provide ample space for the future recolonization of large carnivores.     

Fine-scale distributions of carnivores in a logging concession in Sarawak,Malaysian Borneo

Coarse-scale patterns of distribution and abundance of species are the outcome of processes occurring at finer spatial scales, hence the conservation of species depends on understanding their fine-scale ecology. For Bornean carnivores, little is known about fine-scale predictors of species occurrence and it is assumed that the two main threats to wildlife on Borneo, habitat disturbance and hunting, also impact their occurrence. To increase our understanding of the Borneo carnivore community, we deployed 60 cameras in a logging concession in northern Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo, where different landscape covariates, both natural and anthropogenic, were present. We built single-species occupancy models to investigate fine-scale carnivore occupancy. Overall, forest disturbance had a negative effect on Hose’s civet (Diplogale hosei), banded civet (Hemigalus derbyanus) and yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula). Further, banded civet had greater occupancy probabilities in more remote areas. Logging roads had the most diverse effect on carnivore occupancy, with Hose’s civet and masked palm civet (Paguma larvata) negatively affected by roads, whereas Malay civet (Viverra tangalunga), short-tailed mongoose (Herpestes brachyurus) and leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) showed higher occupancy closer to roads. Canopy height, canopy closure, number of trees with holes (cavities) and distance to nearest village also affected occupancy, though the directions of these effects varied among species. Our results highlight the need to collect often overlooked habitat variables: moss cover and ‘kerangas’ (tropical heath forest) were the most important variables predicting occurrence of Hose’s civet. The preservation of such forest conditions may be crucial for the long-term conservation of this little-known species. Our results confirm that logged forests, when left to regenerate, can host diverse carnivore communities on Borneo, provided less disturbed habitat is available nearby, though human access needs to be controlled. We recommend easy-to-implement forest management strategies including maintaining forest next to logging roads; preserving fruiting trees and trees with cavities, both standing and fallen; and blocks of remote, less disturbed, mid- to high-elevation forest with understorey vegetation.     

Using Landscape and Bioclimatic Features to Predict the Distribution of Lions,Leopards and Spotted Hyaenas in Tanzania's Ruaha Landscape

Tanzania''s Ruaha landscape is an international priority area for large carnivores, supporting over 10% of the world''s lions and important populations of leopards and spotted hyaenas. However, lack of ecological data on large carnivore distribution and habitat use hinders the development of effective carnivore conservation strategies in this critical landscape. Therefore, the study aimed to (i) identify the most significant ecogeographical variables influencing the potential distribution of lions, leopards and spotted hyaenas across the Ruaha landscape; (ii) identify zones with highest suitability for harbouring those species; and (iii) use species distribution modelling algorithms (SDMs) to define important areas for conservation of large carnivores. Habitat suitability was calculated based on environmental features from georeferenced presence-only carnivore location data. Potential distribution of large carnivores appeared to be strongly influenced by water availability; highly suitable areas were situated close to rivers and experienced above average annual precipitation. Net primary productivity and tree cover also exerted some influence on habitat suitability. All three species showed relatively narrow niche breadth and low tolerance to changes in habitat characteristics. From 21,050 km² assessed, 8.1% (1,702 km²) emerged as highly suitable for all three large carnivores collectively. Of that area, 95.4% (1,624 km²) was located within 30 km of the Park-village border, raising concerns about human-carnivore conflict. This was of particular concern for spotted hyaenas, as they were located significantly closer to the Park boundary than lions and leopards. This study provides the first map of potential carnivore distribution across the globally important Ruaha landscape, and demonstrates that SDMs can be effective for understanding large carnivore habitat requirements in poorly sampled areas. This approach could have relevance for many other important wildlife areas that only have limited, haphazard presence-only data, but which urgently require strategic conservation planning.     

Assessing resource and predator effects on habitat use of tropical small carnivores

Habitat use of animals is influenced by a combination of factors including food abundance and interactions with other species. Animals typically must forage while simultaneously avoiding predation from multiple potential predators, but habitat use in tropical forest ecosystems that assesses effects of both predation risk and resources has rarely been conducted. We used camera traps and occupancy analyses to document small mammalian carnivore occurrence in relation to food abundance and interactions with large predators. We hypothesized that habitat use of six small mammalian carnivores (≤15 kg) would be influenced by (1) abundance of resources (fruit, rodents, and streams) and/or (2) large predators. Predictions regarding food and habitat resources were only supported for one species (crab-eating mongoose, Urva urva), which was positively associated with rodents and streams. Three small carnivores (masked palm civet Paguma larvata, common palm civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, yellow-throated marten Martes flavigula) were affected negatively by leopard and mesopredators as predicted. Counter to our predictions, two species (masked palm civet and yellow-throated marten) showed spatial avoidance of tiger suggesting that an apex predator might also pose predation risk to small carnivores. The focal small carnivores and large predators of this study appeared to have moderately to highly overlapping temporal activity indicating no temporal avoidance. In conclusion, food resources appeared to have minimal effects for six small carnivores in this ecosystem probably due to continuous resource availability. Predation risk appeared to affect some species in terms of spatial occupancy but not in temporal activity, indicating perhaps complex, but not entirely negative interactions between larger carnivores and this guild of small carnivores. The mechanisms which facilitate co-occurrence between small carnivores and large predators may, however, operate at finer spatiotemporal scales than we investigated here.     

Global patterns of fragmentation and connectivity of mammalian carnivore habitat

Although mammalian carnivores are vulnerable to habitat fragmentation and require landscape connectivity, their global patterns of fragmentation and connectivity have not been examined. We use recently developed high-resolution habitat suitability models to conduct comparative analyses and to identify global hotspots of fragmentation and connectivity for the world's terrestrial carnivores. Species with less fragmentation (i.e. more interior high-quality habitat) had larger geographical ranges, a greater proportion of habitat within their range, greater habitat connectivity and a lower risk of extinction. Species with higher connectivity (i.e. less habitat isolation) also had a greater proportion of high-quality habitat, but had smaller, not larger, ranges, probably reflecting shorter distances between habitat patches for species with restricted distributions; such species were also more threatened, as would be expected given the negative relationship between range size and extinction risk. Fragmentation and connectivity did not differ among Carnivora families, and body mass was associated with connectivity but not fragmentation. On average, only 54.3 per cent of a species' geographical range comprised high-quality habitat, and more troubling, only 5.2 per cent of the range comprised such habitat within protected areas. Identification of global hotspots of fragmentation and connectivity will help guide strategic priorities for carnivore conservation.     

Secondary forest buffers the effects of fragmentation on aerial insectivorous bat species following 30 years of passive forest restoration

Passive forest restoration can buffer the effects of habitat loss on biodiversity. We acoustically surveyed aerial insectivorous bats in a whole-ecosystem fragmentation experiment in the Brazilian Amazon over a 2-year period, across 33 sites, comprising continuous old-growth forest, remnant fragments, and regenerating secondary forest matrix. We analyzed the activity of 10 species/sonotypes to investigate occupancy across habitat types and responses to fragment size and interior-edge-matrix (IEM) disturbance gradients. Employing a multiscale approach, we investigated guild (edge foragers, forest specialists, flexible forest foragers, and open space specialists) and species-level responses to vegetation structure and forest cover, edge, and patch density across six spatial scales (0.5–3 km). We found species-specific habitat occupancy patterns and nuanced responses to fragment size and the IEM disturbance gradient. For example, Furipterus horrens had lower activity in secondary forest sites and the interior and edge of the smallest fragments (1 and 10 ha) compared to continuous forest, and only two species (Pteronotus spp.) showed no habitat preference and no significant responses across the IEM and fragment size gradients. Only the Molossus sonotype responded negatively to vegetation structure. We uncovered no negative influence of forest cover or edge density at guild or species-level. Our results indicate that reforestation can buffer the negative effects of fragmentation and although these effects can still be detected in some species, generally aerial insectivorous bats appear to be in recovery after 30 years of passive forest restoration. Our findings reinforce the need to protect regenerating forests while conserving vast expanses of old-growth forest.     

Forest-edge utilization by carnivores in relation to local and landscape habitat characteristics in central European farmland

Rapid changes in agricultural landscape structure and composition affect many different farmland biotas, including carnivores, which are a key element of ecosystem stability, yet little is known about their distribution and habitat use. In this study, we evaluated how habitat characteristics on two different spatial scales (local and landscape scale) affected the forest-edge utilization by small and medium-sized carnivores in fragmented central European farmland. Based on an indirect method for detecting carnivores (scent stations), we sampled 212 forest fragments of different sizes (1–7864 ha) during April to May from 2006 to 2009. Our results indicate that carnivore utilization of forest-edge habitats was driven by landscape rather than local characteristics even though the overall extent of explained variation was small. The most important factors that determined response of the carnivore community were the area of farmland and that of urban land on a landscape scale. The corridor connectivity between small forest fragments and other spatial elements played a crucial role in the occurrence of red fox. Our results suggest that comprehensive studies on multi-species carnivore assemblage using scent station might be useful in evaluating species-specific response to habitat characteristics, especially if large numbers of stations visited by carnivores are available.