Cleaning interactions at the only atoll in the South Atlantic

In marine ecosystems, cleaning is a mutualistic relationship in which so-called cleaners remove ectoparasites, diseased tissue, or mucus from the body of their clients, and thus help to maintain a healthy reef community. In spite of its importance in many marine habitats, this interaction remains poorly understood, particularly at oceanic islands. Here, we present the first comprehensive study of cleaning interactions in a reef fish assemblage at Rocas, the only atoll in the South Atlantic. We recorded 318 cleaning events, in which six fish species, including two endemic ones, and two shrimp species acted as cleaners. The clients serviced by these cleaners were 21 bony fish species, one shark and one sea turtle. The cleaner wrasse Thalassoma noronhanum and the cleaner goby Elacatinus phthirophagus were the cleaners with the greatest number of events and species richness of clients. Additionally, 82% of clients in the cleaning events were non-piscivores, and the abundance of both cleaners and clients positively influenced the number of cleaning events (R² = 0.4; p < 0.001). Our results indicate that Rocas atoll has a high species richness of cleaner species despite its small size and highlight the importance of studies of cleaning symbiosis, even in isolated places with low species richness, for a better comprehension of this association in reefs.     

Potential Sequential Exposures to 2-Butoxyethanol After Use of a Hard-Surface Cleaner

Professional workers and consumers frequently use hard-surface cleaning products and these products may contain glycol ethers (GEs), such as 2-Butoxyethanol (2-BE). Governmental agencies have set exposure limits for some chemicals used in cleaning products and these exposure limits have been used as guides to protect human health. The study objectives were to determine realistic inhalation exposures for professional workers performing multiple, sequential cleaning tasks and compare the exposures to the acute reference exposure level (REL), which California established for 2-BE. The ConsExpo model was acceptable for evaluating exposure based on a comparison of its predictions to experimentally measured 2-BE vapor concentrations from hard-surface cleaning. The typical worker exposure was predicted for a cleaning scenario consisting of three bathrooms and three kitchens (or three bedrooms) in a 1-h period. This exposure scenario would not be expected to result in significant health consequences because the predicted exposure was much lower than the REL. The predicted chronic and aggregate exposures were also acceptable. This analysis identified two important variables that affect inhalation exposure: cleaners should be used with adequate ventilation and wet wiping towels should be properly disposed so that they are not a source of continuing exposure.     

Choosy reef fish select cleaner fish that provide high-quality service

Reef fish that actively visit cleaner fish to have parasites and dead or infected tissue removed face two potential problems: they might have to wait while cleaners inspect other clients, and cleaners might feed on healthy body tissue, a behaviour that is referred to as cheating. Individuals of some ‘client’ species have large home ranges, which cover several cleaning stations, while others have small territories or home ranges with access to only one cleaning station. The former can thus choose between cleaners, while the latter cannot. We investigated whether clients with large home ranges change cleaning partners to outplay cleaners against each other to achieve (1) priority of access over clients with no choice at cleaning stations and (2) control over cheating by cleaners. We followed individuals of longnosed parrotfish, Hipposcarus harid, for up to 120 min in their natural environment and noted their interactions with cleaner wrasses, Labroides dimidiatus. Individuals were likely to return to the same cleaning station if the previous interaction had ended without conflict but changed cleaners for the next inspection if they had been either cheated or ignored, at least if the time between two consecutive visits was short. The overall attractiveness of a cleaning station seemed to be largely independent of service quality, which appeared to be similar at all stations. This is the first empirical evidence that the option to change partners is used as a control mechanism to stabilize cooperative behaviour.     

Geographic Variation in the Behaviour of the Cleaner Fish Labroides dimidiatus (Labridae)

Geographical variation in the outcome of interspecific interactions has a range of proximate ecological causes. For instance, cleaning interactions between coral reef fishes can result in benefits for both the cleaner and its clients. However, because both parties can cheat and because the rewards of cheating may depend on the local abundance of ectoparasites on clients, the interaction might range from exploitative to mutualistic. In a comparative analysis of behavioural measures of the association between the cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus and all its client species, we compared cleaning interactions between two sites on the Great Barrier Reef that differ with respect to mean ectoparasite abundance. At Heron Island, where client fish consistently harbour fewer ectoparasites, client species that tended to pose for cleaners were more likely to receive feeding bites by cleaners than client species that did not pose for cleaners. This was not the case at Lizard Island, where ectoparasites are significantly more abundant. Client fish generally spent more time posing for cleaners at Lizard Island than their conspecifics at Heron Island. However, fish at Heron Island were inspected longer on average by cleaners than conspecifics at Lizard Island, and they incurred more bites and swipes at their sides per unit time from cleaners. These and other differences between the two sites suggest that the local availability of ectoparasites as a food source for cleaners may determine whether clients will seek cleaning, and whether cleaners will feed on parasites or attempt to feed on client mucus. The results suggest that cleaning symbiosis is a mosaic of different outcomes driven by geographical differences in the benefits for both participants.     

Care for infibulated women giving birth in Norway: an anthropological analysis of health workers' management of a medically and culturally unfamiliar issue

The focus of this article is on Norwegian health care workers' experience and management of birth care of women who have undergone infibulation. Because infibulation is the most extensive form of female genital cutting, infibulated women experience a higher risk of birth complications, and health workers generally experience delivery care for this group as challenging. Infibulated women, who come from recently arrived immigrant groups, are a challenge to the predominant Norwegian birth philosophy of "natural childbirth" and the positive evaluation of everything considered natural. The challenges relate to a mixture of technical know-how and a complex set of interpretations of central cultural elements of gender, nature, health, and gender equity. The findings suggest that a combination of taboo, silence, limited knowledge, and emotional difficulty along with a wish to be culture sensitive may at times prove counterproductive to giving the best help. Health care workers often seem to impose "imagined" cultural values on infibulated women, rather than clarifying them through personal communication.     

Cleaner wrasse prefer client mucus: support for partner control mechanisms in cleaning interactions

Recent studies on cleaning behaviour suggest that there are conflicts between cleaners and their clients over what cleaners eat. The diet of cleaners usually contains ectoparasites and some client tissue. It is unclear, however, whether cleaners prefer client tissue over ectoparasites or whether they include client tissue in their diet only when searching for parasites alone is not profitable. To distinguish between these two hypotheses, we trained cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus to feed from plates and offered them client mucus from the parrotfish Chlorurus sordidus, parasitic monogenean flatworms, parasitic gnathiid isopods and boiled flour glue as a control. We found that cleaners ate more mucus and monogeneans than gnathiids, with gnathiids eaten slightly more often than the control substance. Because gnathiids are the most abundant ectoparasites, our results suggest a potential for conflict between cleaners and clients over what the cleaner should eat, and support studies emphasizing the importance of partner control in keeping cleaning interactions mutualistic.     

Recruitment and Retention of Mental Health Workers in Ghana

Introduction

The lack of trained mental health workers is a primary contributor to the mental health treatment gap worldwide. Despite the great need to recruit and retain mental health workers in low-income countries, little is known about how these workers perceive their jobs and what drives them to work in mental health care. Using qualitative interviews, we aimed to explore factors motivating mental health workers in order to inform interventions to increase recruitment and retention.

Methods

We conducted 28 in-depth, open-ended interviews with staff in Ghana’s three public psychiatric hospitals. We used the snowballing method to recruit participants and the constant comparative method for qualitative data analysis, with multiple members of the research team participating in data coding to enhance the validity and reliability of the analysis. The use of qualitative methods allowed us to understand the range and depth of motivating and demotivating factors.

Results

Respondents described many factors that influenced their choice to enter and remain in mental health care. Motivating factors included 1) desire to help patients who are vulnerable and in need, 2) positive day-to-day interactions with patients, 3) intellectual or academic interest in psychiatry or behavior, and 4) good relationships with colleagues. Demotivating factors included 1) lack of resources at the hospital, 2) a rigid supervisory hierarchy, 3) lack of positive or negative feedback on work performance, and 4) few opportunities for career advancement within mental health.

Conclusions

Because many of the factors are related to relationships, these findings suggest that strengthening the interpersonal and team dynamics may be a critical and relatively low cost way to increase worker motivation. The data also allowed us to highlight key areas for resource allocation to improve both recruitment and retention, including risk pay, adequate tools for patient care, improved hospital work environment, and stigma reduction efforts.     

A comparative study of cleaning activity of two reef fishes at Fernando de Noronha Archipelago,tropical West Atlantic

Cleaner fishes are usually classified as obligate or facultative cleaners according to their diet and the extent to which their nutritional requirements in the different ontogenetic stages are gained from cleaning. While obligate cleaners clean throughout their lives and ingest mainly food taken from the clients’ body surface, facultative cleaners clean only as juveniles and have a broader diet. In addition, some facultative cleaners may experience a relatively higher predation risk, and thus rarely interact with piscivorous fishes. Despite these acknowledged differences, there are very few studies that compare cleaning activity of obligate and facultative cleaners within the same area. Cleaning activity of the obligate cleaner goby Elacatinus cf. randalli and the facultative cleaner wrasse Thalassoma noronhanum were comparatively examined at Fernando de Noronha Archipelago, tropical West Atlantic. The client assemblage attended by the two cleaners differed, as the goby attended a slightly greater diversity of species (22), mostly piscivores and zoobenthivores, and the wrasse attended fewer species (19), mostly planktivores. Chromis multilineata was the most common client species of both cleaners, although body size (which is expected to be positively correlated to clients’ ectoparasite load) of C. multilineata individuals attended by the goby was larger than that of the individuals attended by the wrasse. Despite such differences, T. noronhanum showed a surprisingly species-rich client assemblage when compared with other cleaners of the genus Thalassoma. In addition, the frequency and time spent on cleaning interactions, as well as the number of client species attended per 10-min period, was similar for both cleaner species, which indicate that they have important yet complimentary ecological roles in the reef community at Fernando de Noronha Archipelago.     

Co-evolution of cleaning and feeding morphology in western Atlantic and eastern Pacific gobies

Cleaning symbioses are mutualistic relationships where cleaners remove and consume ectoparasites from their clients. Cleaning behavior is rare in fishes and is a highly specialized feeding strategy only observed in around 200 species. Cleaner fishes vary in their degree of specialization, ranging from species that clean as juveniles or facultatively as adults, to nearly obligate or dedicated cleaners. Here, we investigate whether these different levels of trophic specialization correspond with similar changes in feeding morphology. Specifically, we model the evolution of cleaning behavior across the family Gobiidae, which contains the most speciose radiation of dedicated and facultative cleaner fishes. We compared the cranial morphology and dentition of cleaners and non-cleaners across the phylogeny of cleaning gobies and found that facultative cleaners independently evolved four times and have converged on an intermediate morphology relative to that of dedicated cleaners and non-cleaning generalists. This is consistent with their more flexible feeding habits. Cleaner gobies also possess a distinct tooth morphology, which suggests they are adapted for scraping parasites off their clients and show little similarity to other cleaner clades. We propose that evolutionary history and pre-adaptation underlie the morphological and ecological diversification of cleaner fishes.     

Evaluation of the effect of cleaning regimes on biofilms of thermophilic bacilli on stainless steel

AIMS: To determine the mechanism for both the removal and inactivation of 18-h biofilms of a thermophilic Bacillus species that optimally grows at 55 degrees C on stainless steel. METHODS AND RESULTS: The cleaning strategies tested were based on biofilm biochemistry and physiology, and focused on the chemistry of the cleaners, the duration and temperature of the cleaning process and a combination of various cleaners. The success of the cleaning regimes was determined based on the removal of cells and organic debris and the elimination of viable cells. The results confirmed that a caustic (75 degrees C for 30 min) and acid (75 degrees C for 30 min) wash, relied upon heavily in most food processing industries for cleaning-in-place systems, was successful in removing these biofilms. However, any changes in the concentrations of these cleaners or the temperature of cleaning drastically affected the overall outcome. Alternative cleaning agents based on enzymatic or nonenzymatic breakdown of cellular proteins or polysaccharides, surfactant action, use of oxidative attack and free radicals varied in degrees of their success. Combining proteolytic action with surfactants increased wetability and therefore enhanced the cleaning efficiency. CONCLUSIONS: Several procedures, including caustic/acid and enzyme based cleaners, will be satisfactory, provided that the correct process parameters are observed i.e. concentration, time, temperature and kinetic energy (flow). Confirmation of these results should be carried out in a pilot plant through several use/clean cycles. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Confidence in standard and alternative cleaning procedures for food manufacturing plant to prevent contamination with thermophilic bacilli that threaten product quality.     

Ontogenetic shift in host tolerance controls initiation of a cleaning symbiosis

When the interests of mutualists are not perfectly aligned, control mechanisms that modulate interactions can maintain mutually beneficial outcomes and stabilize mutualisms over evolutionary time. However, the costs and benefits of symbiosis often change with ontogeny and whether control mechanisms are adjusted to reflect ontogenetic changes is largely unknown. We examined the recently described cleaning symbiosis between crayfish Cambarus chaugaensis and ectosymbiotic annelids (Xironodrilus appalachius) for evidence of ontogenetic changes in symbiont control. Xironodrilus appalachius provide a beneficial cleaning service to C. chaugaensis by removing epibiotic accumulations from the gills, but crayfish also incur costs via density‐dependent facultative parasitism of gill tissue. A series of laboratory experiments using crayfish from three size (age) – classes demonstrated that crayfish use grooming to limit cleaner density and grooming effects on cleaners varied with crayfish age. Small crayfish quickly removed essentially all of their cleaners. Intermediate crayfish removed most of their cleaners, but some cleaners persisted at a location apparently inaccessible to grooming and far from the gill chamber. Large crayfish removed a smaller proportion of cleaners and cleaners were allowed access to the gill chamber, thus initiating the cleaning symbiosis. Cleaner removal was not dependent on cleaner density, suggesting that crayfish do not regulate cleaners to a specific density. Experimental results were corroborated by patterns observed during a field survey. We argue decreased cleaner removal and relaxed control of cleaner attachment sites corresponds to ontogenetic changes in the costs and benefits of symbiosis. This study integrates two major theoretical perspectives from ecological literature; control mechanisms and ontogenetic shifts, and illustrates how changes in control mechanisms with ontogeny may favor life‐long positive outcomes of symbiosis. Ontogenetic shifts in the costs and benefits of symbiosis may be common; therefore future theoretical and empirical studies of symbioses should incorporate both perspectives.     

Linking cranial morphology to prey capture kinematics in three cleaner wrasses: Labroides dimidiatus,Larabicus quadrilineatus,and Thalassoma lutescens

Cleaner fishes are well known for removing and consuming ectoparasites off other taxa. Observers have noted that cleaners continuously “pick” ectoparasites from the bodies of their respective client organisms, but little is known about the kinematics of cleaning. While a recent study described the jaw morphology of cleaners as having small jaw‐closing muscles and weak bite forces, it is unknown how these traits translate into jaw movements during feeding to capture and remove ectoparasites embedded in their clients. Here, we describe cranial morphology and kinematic patterns of feeding for three species of cleaner wrasses. Through high‐speed videography of cleaner fishes feeding in two experimental treatments, we document prey capture kinematic profiles for Labroides dimidiatus, Larabicus quadrilineatus, and Thalassoma lutescens. Our results indicate that cleaning in labrids may be associated with the ability to perform low‐displacement, fast jaw movements that allow for rapid and multiple gape cycles on individually targeted items. Finally, while the feeding kinematics of cleaners show notable similarities to those of “picker” cyprinodontiforms, we find key differences in the timing of events. In fact, cleaners generally seem to be able to capture prey twice as fast as cyprinodontiforms. We thus suggest that the kinematic patterns exhibited by cleaners are indicative of picking behavior, but that “pickers” may be more kinematically diverse than previously thought. J. Morphol. 276:1377–1391, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Face your fears: cleaning gobies inspect predators despite being stressed by them

social stressors typically elicit two distinct behavioural responses in vertebrates: an active response (i.e., "fight or flight") or behavioural inhibition (i.e., freezing). Here, we report an interesting exception to this dichotomy in a Caribbean cleaner fish, which interacts with a wide variety of reef fish clients, including predatory species. Cleaning gobies appraise predatory clients as potential threat and become stressed in their presence, as evidenced by their higher cortisol levels when exposed to predatory rather than to non-predatory clients. Nevertheless, cleaning gobies neither flee nor freeze in response to dangerous clients but instead approach predators faster (both in captivity and in the wild), and interact longer with these clients than with non-predatory clients (in the wild). We hypothesise that cleaners interrupt the potentially harmful physiological consequences elicited by predatory clients by becoming increasingly proactive and by reducing the time elapsed between client approach and the start of the interaction process. The activation of a stress response may therefore also be responsible for the longer cleaning service provided by these cleaners to predatory clients in the wild. Future experimental studies may reveal similar patterns in other social vertebrate species when, for instance, individuals approach an opponent for reconciliation after a conflict.     

Development and pretesting of an information,education and communication (IEC) focused antenatal care handbook in Pakistan

Background

Improvement of maternal morbidity and mortality indicators remains a major challenge for developing countries. Antenatal care is one of the key strategies in maintaining safe motherhood. The objective of this study was to develop and pretest a culturally relevant Antenatal Care Handbook (ANC handbook) utilizing the principles of information, education, and communication (IEC). We developed the ANC handbook after an extensive review of existing literature, available instruments (for keeping track of pregnancy and informing pregnant women), and seeking expert opinion. To pretest the ANC handbook, a cross-sectional approach was adopted, and information was collected from 300 expectant women, 150 women each from the community and from the health facility arm. Trained field workers conducted the pretesting from May 2004 to June 2004. Feedback on messages for pregnant mothers contained in the handbook was also assessed. At the same time, the ANC handbook was reviewed by 25 health care providers (including community health workers, physicians, nurses, and other health staff working at various kinds of health care facilities). Data were analyzed using both quantitative and qualitative methods.

Findings

Twenty-three percent of the interviewed women were primigravida, 50% were multigravida and 27% were grandmultipara. The mean age of the women in the community sample was 25.8 SD: 4.9 years and in the hospital sample it was 25.7 SD: 5.2 years. No significant differences were observed between women interviewed at community or health facilities related to their understanding of ANC messages, and the majority of messages were well understood. Similarly, health care providers found all of the instruments useful and workable in the health system. Finally, feedback from pregnant women and health care staff regarding different components of the handbook were incorporated and later verified by them.

Conclusions

Findings of pretesting reveal that a majority of pregnant women have an understanding of the culturally relevant ANC handbook. The handbook was found to be practical by healthcare paraprofessionals and community workers for use in different tiers of the health care system in Pakistan. The ANC handbook can be applied in the health service sector of Pakistan and can be adopted with relevant cultural modifications by countries with a similar context.

     

Diet of broadstripe cleaning gobies on a Barbadian reef

Gnathiid isopod larvae constituted the majority of countable food items taken by broadstripe gobies, Elacatinus prochilos , on Barbadian coral reefs, which confirms their important role in cleaning interactions. However, E. prochilos does not rely exclusively on cleaning for food since a large amount of benthic material, mainly sponge and coral polyps, was observed in the stomach contents of all cleaners. Less than one-third of cleaners had ingested ectoparasites. Elacatinus prochilos appears to consume few ectoparasites compared with other Elacatinus species elsewhere in the Caribbean and with Indo-Pacific cleaner species.     

Comprehensive Approach to Improving Maternal Health and Achieving MDG 5: Report from the Mountains of Lesotho

Background

Although it is now widely recognized that reductions in maternal mortality and improvements in women''s health cannot be achieved through simple, vertical strategies, few programs have provided successful models for how to integrate services into a comprehensive program for maternal health. We report our experience in rural Lesotho, where Partners In Health (PIH) in partnership with the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare implemented a program that provides comprehensive care of pregnant women from the community to the clinic level.

Methods

Between May and July 2009, PIH trained 100 women, many of whom were former traditional birth attendants, to serve as clinic-affiliated maternal health workers. They received performance-based incentives for accompanying pregnant women during antenatal care (ANC) visits and facility-based delivery. A nurse-midwife provided ANC and delivery care and supervised the maternal health workers. To overcome geographic barriers to delivering at the clinic, women who lived far from the clinic stayed at a maternal lying-in house prior to their expected delivery dates. We analyzed data routinely collected from delivery and ANC registers to compare service utilization before and after implementation of the program.

Results

After the establishment of the program, the average number first ANC visits increased from 20 to 31 per month. The clinic recorded 178 deliveries in the first year of the program and 216 in the second year, compared to 46 in the year preceding the program. During the first two years of the program, 49 women with complications were successfully transported to the district hospital, and no maternal deaths occurred among the women served by the program.

Conclusions

Our results demonstrate that it is possible to achieve dramatic improvements in the utilization of maternal health services and facility-based delivery by strengthening human resource capacity, implementing active follow-up in the community, and de-incentivizing home births.     

"Taming tradition": medicalized female genital practices in western Kenya

This article considers the question of female genital practices at the hands of health workers in western Kenya. Recent articles in Medical Anthropology Quarterly have critically engaged with the biomedical arguments condemning such practices. This article studies the case of medicalized circumcision in which biomedical concerns over health risks have become incorporated in their vernacular practice. Although some suggest that medicalization may provide a harm-reduction strategy to the abandonment of the practice, research in one region challenges this suggestion. It argues that changing and conflicting ideologies of gender and sexuality have led young women to seek their own meaning through medicalized practice. Moreover, attributing this practice to financial motivations of health workers overlooks the way in which these "moral agents" must be situated within their social and cultural universe. Together, these insights challenge the view that medicine can remain neutral in the mediation of tradition.     

Asymmetric cheating opportunities and partner control in a cleaner fish mutualism

How can cooperation persist if, for one partner, cheating is more profitable than cooperation in each round, while the other partner has no option to cheat? Our laboratory experiments suggest that such a situation exists between the cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus and its nonpredatory client reef fish species, which actively seek cleaners to have their ectoparasites removed. Clients Ctenochaetus striatus regularly jolted in response to cleaner mouth contact, and these jolts were not linked to the removal of parasites. In addition, cleaners did not search for parasites but fed on mucus when exposed to anaesthetized clients, which could not control the cleaners' behaviour. Field data showed that clients often terminated an interaction immediately after a jolt. Client species with access to only one cleaning station, owing to their small territories or home ranges, terminated interactions mainly by chasing cleaners while clients with access to two or more cleaning stations mainly swam away. Thus, the chasing of cleaners appeared to be a form of punishment, imposing costs on the cleaner at the client's (momentary) expense. Chasing yields future benefits, as jolts were on average less frequent during interactions between cleaners and individuals that had terminated their previous interaction by aggressive chasing.     

Short‐Term Variation in the Level of Cooperation in the Cleaner Wrasse Labroides dimidiatus: Implications for the Role of Potential Stressors

There is a wealth of game theoretical approaches to the evolution and maintenance of cooperation between unrelated individuals and accumulating empirical tests of these models. This contrasts strongly with our lack of knowledge on proximate causes of cooperative behaviour. Marine cleaning mutualism has been used as a model system to address functional aspects of conflict resolution: client reef fish benefit from cleaning interactions through parasite removal, but cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus prefer client mucus. Hence, feeding against their preference represents cooperative behaviour in cleaners. Cleaners regularly cheat non‐predatory clients while they rarely cheat predatory clients. Here, we asked how precisely cleaners can adjust service quality from one interaction to the next. We found that non‐predatory clients receive a better service if the previous client was a predator than if the previous client was a non‐predator. In a related laboratory experiment, a hand‐net used as a stressor resulted in cleaners feeding more against their preference in subsequent interactions. The combination of the cleaners’ behaviour in the two studies shows that the cleaners’ service quality for a given client species is not fixed, but it can be manipulated. The results suggest that short‐term stress is one factor that causes cleaners to increase their levels of cooperation, a hypothesis that is amenable to further experiments manipulating the endocrine system.     

Cleaner fish use tactile dancing behavior as a preconflict management strategy

The most commonly asked question about cooperative interactions is how they are maintained when cheating is theoretically more profitable. In cleaning interactions, where cleaners remove parasites from apparently cooperating clients, the classical question asked is why cleaner fish can clean piscivorous client fish without being eaten, a problem Trivers used to explain reciprocal altruism. Trivers suggested that predators refrain from eating cleaners only when the repeated removal of parasites by a particular cleaner results in a greater benefit than eating the cleaner. Although several theoretical models have examined cheating behavior in clients, no empirical tests have been done (but see Darcy ). It has been observed that cleaners are susceptible to predation. Thus, cleaners should have evolved strategies to avoid conflict or being eaten. In primates, conflicts are often resolved with conflict or preconflict management behavior. Here, I show that cleaner fish tactically stimulate clients while swimming in an oscillating "dancing" manner (tactile dancing) more when exposed to hungry piscivorous clients than satiated ones, regardless of the client's parasite load. Tactile dancing thus may function as a preconflict management strategy that enables cleaner fish to avoid conflict with potentially "dangerous" clients.