A landscape ecology approach identifies important drivers of urban biodiversity

Cities are growing rapidly worldwide, yet a mechanistic understanding of the impact of urbanization on biodiversity is lacking. We assessed the impact of urbanization on arthropod diversity (species richness and evenness) and abundance in a study of six cities and nearby intensively managed agricultural areas. Within the urban ecosystem, we disentangled the relative importance of two key landscape factors affecting biodiversity, namely the amount of vegetated area and patch isolation. To do so, we a priori selected sites that independently varied in the amount of vegetated area in the surrounding landscape at the 500‐m scale and patch isolation at the 100‐m scale, and we hold local patch characteristics constant. As indicator groups, we used bugs, beetles, leafhoppers, and spiders. Compared to intensively managed agricultural ecosystems, urban ecosystems supported a higher abundance of most indicator groups, a higher number of bug species, and a lower evenness of bug and beetle species. Within cities, a high amount of vegetated area increased species richness and abundance of most arthropod groups, whereas evenness showed no clear pattern. Patch isolation played only a limited role in urban ecosystems, which contrasts findings from agro‐ecological studies. Our results show that urban areas can harbor a similar arthropod diversity and abundance compared to intensively managed agricultural ecosystems. Further, negative consequences of urbanization on arthropod diversity can be mitigated by providing sufficient vegetated space in the urban area, while patch connectivity is less important in an urban context. This highlights the need for applying a landscape ecological approach to understand the mechanisms shaping urban biodiversity and underlines the potential of appropriate urban planning for mitigating biodiversity loss.     

Microbial ecology and biodiversity in permafrost

Permafrost represents 26% of terrestrial soil ecosystems; yet its biology, essentially microbiology, remains relatively unexplored. The permafrost environment is considered extreme because indigenous microorganisms must survive prolonged exposure to subzero temperatures and background radiation for geological time scales in a habitat with low water activity and extremely low rates of nutrient and metabolite transfer. Yet considerable numbers and biodiversity of bacteria exist in permafrost, some of which may be among the most ancient viable life on Earth. This review describes the permafrost environment as a microbial habitat and reviews recent studies examining microbial biodiversity found in permafrost as well as microbial growth and activity at ambient in situ subzero temperatures. These investigations suggest that functional microbial ecosystems exist within the permafrost environment and may have important implications on global biogeochemical processes as well as the search for past or extant life in permafrost presumably present on Mars and other bodies in our solar system.     

Hurricanes and tropical coastal biodiversity

Tropical coastal biodiversity has been modulated by tropical storms during a long time and it is currently facing a heavy human impact. The purpose of this review is to compile the available information to improve our understanding of hurricane impacts and to promote the establishment of coastal landscape monitoring, because that is the best way to assess these impacts. Although generalizations on hurricane effects are elusive, some historical dynamics and temporal relationships are included and some details are presented on the impacts by resuspension and movement of sediments, storm waves, and breaking off of coral reef organisms. Some effects on marine turtles and coastal forests are also briefly pointed out.     

Indigenous tropical ecology

Two major works on the ecology of Sumatra and Sulawesi two of the world's great tropical islands, have appeared relatively recently. These volumes represent the rarest of genres in tropical ecology: works of indigenous origin with an indigenous audience in mind. An examination of these exciting books prompts us to examine a wider literature on tropical ecology.     

分子生态学研究与运行多样性保护

分子生态学的发展揭开了生物多样性保护研究的新篇章,分子技术的应用克服了传统生态学法中的一些难题,如野外调查周期长,分辨率有限,实验条件不易控制等,应用各种分子标记（如：RFLP,VNTR,RAPD,DNA测序等）可以分析种群地理格局和异质种群动态,确定种群间的基因流,研究瓶颈效应对种群的影响以及确定个体间的亲缘关系等等,所有这些研究都是指导物种保护和淑危种群的恢复所必要的,种或品系特异性的分子标记技术能够解决形态分类中的模糊现象,确定基于遗传物质的谱系关系,还可以用来分析近缘种间杂交问题,这些问题的解决有助于确定物种优先保护顺序,选择保护地工,近年来引起重视的主要组织人性复合体（MHC）NDA异分析可能会在研究种群对疾病的易感性第一系列种群特异性问题方面非常有用,随着分子技术的不断发展,会有更多的保护生物学问题得到解决,尤其是结合野外调查统计数据应用多个分子标记对目标种群进行研究,所得到的结果会更精确,更有说服力。     

Integrative freshwater ecology and biodiversity conservation

Freshwater ecosystems provide goods and services of critical importance to human societies, yet they are among the most heavily altered ecosystems with an overproportional loss of biodiversity. Major threats to freshwater biodiversity include overexploitation, water pollution, fragmentation, destruction or degradation of habitat, and invasions by non-native species. Alterations of natural flow regimes by man-made dams, land-use changes, river impoundments, and water abstraction often have profound impacts on lotic communities. An understanding of the functional interactions and processes in freshwater ecosystems presents a major challenge for scientists, but is crucial for effective and sustainable restoration. Most conservation approaches to date have considered single species or single level strategies. In contrast, the concept of ‘Integrative Freshwater Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation’ (IFEBC) proposed herein addresses the interactions between abiotic and biotic factors on different levels of organization qualitatively and quantitatively. It consequently results in a more holistic understanding of biodiversity functioning and management. Core questions include modeling of the processes in aquatic key habitats and their functionality based on the identification and quantification of factors which control the spatial and temporal distribution of biodiversity and productivity in aquatic ecosystems. The context and importance of research into IFEBC is illustrated using case studies from three major areas of research: (i) aquatic habitat quality and restoration ecology, (ii) the genetic and evolutionary potential of aquatic species, and (iii) the detection of stress and toxic effects in aquatic ecosystems using biomarkers. In conclusion, our understanding of the functioning of aquatic ecosystems and conservation management can greatly benefit from the methodological combination of molecular and ecological tools.     

分子生态学研究与动物多样性保护

分子生态学的发展揭开了生物多样性保护研究的新篇章。分子技术的应用克服了传统生态学方法中的一些难题,如野外调查周期长、分辨率有限、实验条件不易控制等。应用各种分子标记（如：RFLP 、VNTR、 RAPD、 DNA测序等）可以分析种群地理格局和异质种群动态、确定种群间的基因流、研究瓶颈效应对种群的影响以及确定个体间的亲缘关系等等。所有这些研究都是指导物种保护和濒危种群的恢复所必需的。种或品系特异性的分子标记技术能够解决形态分类中的模糊现象,确定基于遗传物质的谱系关系,还可以用来分析近缘种间杂交问题。这些问题的解决有助于确定物种优先保护顺序,选择保护地区。近年来引起重视的主要组织相容性复合体（MHC）DNA变异分析可能会在研究种群对疾病的易感性等一系列种群特异性问题方面非常有用。随着分子技术的不断发展,会有更多的保护生物学问题得到解决,尤其是结合野外调查统计数据应用多个分子标记对目标种群进行研究,所得到的结果会更精确,更有说服力。     

生物多样性保护的景观规划途径

景观规划设计在生物多样性保护中起着决定性的作用。基于不同的保护哲学,生物多样性保护的景观规划途径主要可分为两种：一是以物种为核心的景观规划途径,另一种是以景观元素为核心和出发点的规划途径。前者首先确定物种,然后根据物种的生态特性来设计景观格局,后者则以各种尺度的景观元素作为保护对象,根据其空间位置和关系设计景观格局。多种空间战略被认为有利于生物多样性的保护,包括保护核心栖息地、建立缓冲区、构筑廊道、增加景观异质性和引入或恢复栖息地。落实这些空间战略必须首先回答选择什么和在什么地方设计上述景观元素的问题。对此,目前尚没有很好的答案。传统的生物保护战略被动地强调现存濒危物种和景观元素的保护,如果将物种运动和生态过程作为一个能动的景观控制过程来对待,我们将会有一种全新的景观规划途径。其中有三个方面的概念对这种新的景观规划途径有启发意义：即景观的空间构型对生态过程的作用,生物进化空间轨迹与景观格局设计及景观阻力与潜在的生态基础设施的设计。景观生态安全格局正是在这些方向上的一个新的探索。     

Advances in soil microbial ecology and the biodiversity

Recent studies on the colony formation of soil bacteria opened the way to categorize soil bacteria into colony forming curve (CFC) groups of different growth rates. A bacterial culture collection comprising organisms from every CFC group is called an ecocollection. Outlines of ECs of paddy soil 1992 and grassland soil 1987 and 1992 were described. Phylogenetic studies by 16S rDNA sequencing showed a great diversity of culture strains of the ecocollections (EC). A set of alternative concepts was proposed; the active and the quiescent forms of bacterial cells in soil. The former is able to be cultivated and thus counted by the plate method, while the latter is not unless it transforms into the former. Based on the results several points required for extensive cataloguing of soil bacteria were noted.     

Landscape effects on birds in urban woodlands: an analysis of 34 Swedish cities

Aim To compare bird abundances in woodlands along gradients from the city centre to the peri‐urban area. To evaluate the importance of the proportion of woodland within the city and in the peri‐urban landscape to forest bird communities breeding in urban woodlands. To test whether fragmentation effects on birds were linked to the type of peri‐urban matrix. Location A total of 34 Swedish cities with > 10,000 inhabitants in south‐central Sweden. The study area covered 105,000 km², in which 84% of the Swedish population of 9.1 million lives. Methods Repeated point count surveys were conducted in 2004 in a total of 474 woodlands. General linear models were used to test for possible differences in abundance along urban to peri‐urban gradients, and to regress bird abundances in local urban woodlands on: (1) total woodland cover in the city, (2) total woodland cover in the peri‐urban landscape, (3) the interaction between woodland cover in the city and in the peri‐urban area, (4) region, and (5) human density. Results More than 12,000 individuals of 100 forest bird species were recorded. Of the 34 most common species detected, 13 bird species had higher abundances in urban than in peri‐urban woodlands, and seven species showed the opposite trend. The bird community of urban woodlands was characterized by species associated with deciduous forests and tree nesters, whereas the bird community of peri‐urban woodlands was characterized by species associated with coniferous woodland and ground nesters. Twelve species were significantly linearly associated with the proportion of urban woodland and/or the proportion of peri‐urban woodland, and a further eight species were associated with the interaction between these two factors. Local breeding bird abundances of four species were significantly positively associated with the proportion of urban woodland only in farmland‐dominated landscapes. Main conclusions Fragmentation effects on some urban birds are linked to the type of peri‐urban matrix. In farmland landscapes, peri‐urban woodlands may have been too scarce to act as a source of bird immigrants to fragmented urban woodlands. To maintain populations of specialized forest birds within cities in landscapes dominated by agriculture, it is of paramount importance to conserve any remaining urban woodlands.     

植物园与城市生物多样性保护和利用

以往生物多样性保护的实施,主要着眼于野外。实际上,威胁生物多样性的因素,主要是人类的经济生产活动,其典型标志是城市化过程。然而城市化的进程是无法阻止的,因此,应提倡从改善城市化过程以及正确导向城市化来保护生物多样性。本文主要讨论城市生物多样性保护的必要性、可能性及有利条件。同时指出,绝大多数植物园都在大、中城市中,应该担负历史赋予的这个责任,在城市生物多样性保护和利用中发挥作用。     

Evolutionary ecology and the conservation of biodiversity

Studies on evolving interactions among species and the coevolutionary process have suggested that the conservation of biodiversity requires a broad geographic perspective, if the `interaction biodiversity' of the earth is to be conserved with its species diversity. Continued maintenance of the geographic mosaic of specialization, defense and population structure appears to be crucial to the coevolutionary process and the long-term persistence of some interspecific interactions.     

Landscape issues in plant ecology

In the last decade, we have seen the emergence and consolidation of a conceptual framework that recognizes the landscape as an ecological unit of interest. Plant ecologists have long emphasized landscape-scale issues, but there has been no recent attempt to define how landscape concepts are now integrated in vegetation studies. To help define common research paradigms in both landscape and plant ecology, we discuss issues related to three main landscape concepts in vegetation researches, reviewing theoretical influences and emphasizing recent developments. We first focus on environmental relationships, documenting how vegetation patterns emerge from the influence of local abiotic conditions. The landscape is the physical environment. Disturbances are then considered, with a particular attention to human-driven processes that often overrule natural dynamics. The landscape is a dynamic space. As environmental and historical processes generate heterogeneous patterns, we finally move on to stress current evidence relating spatial structure and vegetation dynamics. This relates to the concept of a landscape as a patch-corridor-matrix mosaic. Future challenges involve: 1) the capacity to evaluate the relative importance of multiple controlling processes at broad spatial scale; 2) better assessment of the real importance of the spatial configuration of landscape elements for plant species and finally; 3) the integration of natural and cultural processes and the recognition of their interdependence in relation to vegetation management issues in human landscapes.     

Landscape heterogeneity and the confluence of regional faunas promote richness and structure community assemblage in a tropical biodiversity hotspot

Crane flies (Limoniidae; Limoniinae) were sampled at national parks and protected areas across central to northern Thailand to observe patterns of species richness and faunal turnover in the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot. Prior to sampling, the crane fly fauna of this region was poorly known and no taxonomic keys existed for specimen identification. Utilizing a multi-access taxonomic key to the Limoniinae genera of the Oriental Region designed for this project, identification of collected specimens revealed a crane fly fauna displaying higher richness than inventories from temperate regions. Sixty-six morphospecies from 29 genera/subgenera were collected using a combination of light trapping and Malaise trapping. Richness estimators projected that a total of 70–81 species are to be collected with future sampling, with mountainous northern Thailand projected to have the highest richness. The faunas of Central and Northern Thailand were different, with the north generally composed of more temperate genera and the south composed of more tropical genera. The increased diversity in northern Thailand was significantly influenced by landscape topology. Sampling that spread across two mountain ranges displayed faunas that were divided into both high elevation (>1,000 m) and lower elevation (<1,000 m) faunas. This change in community assemblage across elevation illustrates faunas that were more alike at similar elevations between mountain ranges than they were within national parks.     

Towards sustainable management of Indonesian tropical peatlands

Large areas of Indonesian peatlands have been converted for agricultural and plantation forest purposes. This requires draining with associated CO₂ emissions and fire risks. In order to identify alternative management regimes for peatlands, it is important to understand the sustainability of different peatland uses as well as the economic benefits peatlands supply under different land uses. This study explores the key sustainability issues in Indonesian peatlands, the ecosystem services supplied by peatlands, and potential responses to promote more sustainable peatland use. A literature review and spatial analysis were conducted. Based on predominantly government data, we estimate the amount of Indonesian peatlands that has been converted between 2000 and 2014. We quantify increases in oil palm and plantation forest crop production in this period, and we analyse key sustainability issues, i.e. peat fires and smoke-haze, soil subsidence and flood risk, CO₂ emissions, loss of habitat (in protected areas), and social conflicts that influence sustainability of Indonesian peatlands management. Among others we show that CO₂ emissions from peatlands in Indonesia can be estimated at between 350 and 400 million ton CO₂ per year, and that encroachment of oil palm and plantation forestry (acacia, rubber) has taken place on 28% of protected areas. However, as we examine, the uncertainties involved are substantial. Based on our findings, we distil several implications for the management of the peatlands.