欧前胡素对Aβ_(1-42)致阿尔茨海默病模型小鼠海马组织氧化应激反应的影响

研究欧前胡素对Aβ_(1-42)致阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)模型小鼠海马组织氧化应激反应的影响及作用机制。脑室内注射Aβ_(1-42)制备小鼠AD模型,欧前胡素2.5 mg/kg和5.0 mg/kg在手术后当天开始腹腔注射给药,1次/d,连续给药13天。第14天,分离小鼠海马组织,测定氧化应激反应指标ROS、MDA、SOD、TAOC、GSH-Px、CAT、NO和iNOS,Western Blot检测海马组织核蛋白中Nrf-2的蛋白表达。研究显示,欧前胡素可降低海马组织中ROS、MDA和NO的含量和抑制iNOS的活性,增加SOD、GSH-Px、CAT的活力和T-AOC的水平,上调Nrf2的蛋白表达。研究结果提示,欧前胡素可减轻Aβ_(1-42)致小鼠AD后海马组织氧化应激反应,其机制同欧前胡素抑制活性氧自由基的产生和抑制脂质过氧化反应及增强机体的抗氧化能力有关。     

马齿苋总黄酮对Aβ_(25-35)阿尔茨海默症小鼠学习记忆功能的影响

本实验通过观察马齿苋总黄酮(POTF)对β-淀粉样蛋白(Aβ25-35)所致阿兹海默症(AD)模型小鼠学习记忆的影响,探讨马齿苋总黄酮对AD的改善作用。60只小鼠随机分组,采用海马组织注射Aβ25-35构建AD小鼠模型,经马齿苋总黄酮灌胃治疗30 d后,检测小鼠空间学习记忆能力、海马组织中乙酰胆碱(ACh)和乙酰胆碱酯酶(Ach E)活性、环磷腺苷效应元件结合蛋白(CREB)mRNA和蛋白的相对表达。结果显示,与模型组相比,POTF高剂量组小鼠空间学习记忆能力显著增加(P0.01),海马组织ACh、Ach E和CREB蛋白的表达均明显上升(P0.05)。因此,马齿苋总黄酮(POTF)可能通过增强海马组织胆碱能的代谢,增强CREB信号通路,改善Aβ25-35所致AD小鼠学习记忆能力。     

双受体激动剂CI-1206拮抗Aβ1-42所致小鼠空间学习记忆损伤的作用

目的:探讨葡萄糖依赖性促胰岛素释放激素(GIP)和胰高血糖素样肽1(GLP-1)双受体激动剂CI-1206拮抗淀粉样β蛋白(Aβ)所致小鼠空间工作记忆及长时程记忆损伤的作用。方法:C57小鼠经侧脑室注射Aβ1-42寡聚体建立AD动物模型,经腹腔注射CI-1206进行药物干预,随机分为对照组(saline+D-PBS)、Aβ1-42+saline、CI-1206+D-PBS、Aβ1-42+CI-1206组(n=12),而后联合应用Y-迷宫和Morris水迷宫行为学手段检测小鼠空间学习记忆。结果:1Aβ1-42+saline组小鼠在Y迷宫自发交替实验中进臂正确百分比明显低于对照组(P0.05);Aβ1-42+CI-1206组则明显高于单独给予Aβ1-42组(P0.05);2 Morris水迷宫结果显示,与对照组相比,Aβ1-42+saline组的小鼠逃避潜伏期明显延长,目标象限游泳时间百分比降低(P0.05),经CI-1206处理可明显改善(P0.05);3Aβ1-42和CI-1206均不影响小鼠的运动能力和视力。结论:脑室注射Aβ影响小鼠短期工作记忆及长期空间学习记忆能力;腹腔注射CI-1206可拮抗Aβ1-42所致的短期和长期记忆损伤。     

寡聚体Aβ_(1-42)对大鼠海马突触可塑性的慢性影响

突触传递的长时程抑制(long-term depression,LTD)和长时程增强(long term-potentiation,LTP)是突触可塑性的两种重要形式,并且与学习记忆密切相关。本文探讨Sprague-Dawley(SD)大鼠在海马齿状回区(dentate gyrus,DG)注射36h孵育形成的寡聚体Aβ1-4230d后,在体海马前穿通纤维-齿状回通路(perforant path-dentate gyrus pathway,PP-DG)的突触可塑性和空间记忆能力的变化。2.5月龄SD大鼠随机分为寡聚体Aβ1-42注射组[即阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)模型组,n=12]和正常对照组(n=12),分别在双侧海马DG区注射5μg寡聚体Aβ1-42或生理盐水。应用Morris水迷宫检测大鼠空间记忆能力。同时运用神经电生理在体胞外记录技术,检测寡聚体Aβ1-42引起的海马双脉冲易化(paired pulse facilitation,PPF)、LTD、LTP等突触可塑性形式的变化。结果显示:(1)AD模型组大鼠空间记忆能力下降(P<0.05);(2)寡聚体Aβ1-42降低...     

天麻素对Aβ_(1-42)致痴呆大鼠模型的保护作用及机制探究

为了探讨天麻素(Gastrodin)对Aβ1-42致痴呆大鼠的药理作用及其作用机制,本研究主要通过向SD大鼠海马区微注射Aβ1-42建立大鼠痴呆模型,并在此模型的基础上评价天麻素对阿尔茨海默病的药理作用。实验分为5组:正常组、模型组、低剂量天麻素治疗组(1 mg/kg)、中剂量天麻素治疗组(5 mg/kg)和高剂量天麻素治疗组(25 mg/kg)。天麻素治疗组SD大鼠微注射Aβ1-42后,连续灌胃天麻素14 d,模型组SD大鼠微注射Aβ1-42后,连续灌胃生理盐水14 d。通过水迷宫实验检测各组大鼠行为学变化;用ELISA法检测脑组织中SOD活性、MDA含量和GSH-Px的含量。通过HE染色观察各组SD大鼠脑组织的病理学变化。通过TUNEL法检测各组大鼠脑组织的脑细胞凋亡情况。使用Western blot法检测脑组织中GSK-3β的磷酸化水平。结果发现,模型组大鼠的学习记忆能力明显下降,脑组织出现严重的损伤和凋亡现象,并且脑组织中SOD和GSH-Px的活性明显降低,而MDA含量显著升高。通过天麻素的治疗干预后,我们发现,天麻素治疗可以显著逆转上述的损伤现象,并且天麻素的这种保护作用具有一定的剂量依赖性。与此同时,我们还发现,高剂量天麻素可显著升高脑组织中GSK-3β磷酸化水平。以上结果表明,天麻素对海马区微注射Aβ1-42致痴呆SD大鼠有一定的改善和保护作用,其作用机制可能是激活GSK-3β信号通路发挥抗氧化和抗凋亡作用。     

人β-淀粉样肽Aβ_(42)的融合表达与纯化

[目的]建立一种快速可靠、获取足量和高纯度的人β-淀粉样肽(Aβ_(42))的方法。[方法]首先利用重叠PCR技术扩增获得Aβ_(42)基因全长。随后将基因连入p GEX-4T-1载体,利用GST系统表达融合蛋白。分别在16℃、25℃、30℃和37℃诱导表达,SDS-PAGE检测融合蛋白的表达情况,确定表达的最佳温度。根据优化条件进行目的蛋白的大量表达,利用Gstrap FF柱亲和纯化GST-Aβ_(42)融合蛋白。[结果]成功构建p GEX/Aβ_(42)表达载体,确定30℃为诱导表达的最佳温度。大量表达并经过纯化可获得分子量为30.7 k Da的融合蛋白。[结论]利用GST融合系统表达纯化可得到纯度超过90%的GST-Aβ_(42)融合蛋白,重组蛋白的产率约为1.2 mg/L培养基。当用凝血酶切除GST融合标签后,Aβ_(42)易聚集沉淀。     

海马神经元敲低MCU改善阿尔茨海默病小鼠学习记忆功能障碍

阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease, AD)是一种严重威胁老年人健康的神经退行性疾病,目前为止仍然缺乏有效的治疗方法。最新研究表明,线粒体功能紊乱是AD发展的直接原因。线粒体钙离子单向转运体(mitochondrial calcium uniporter,MCU)位于线粒体内膜,是线粒体Ca2+摄取的主要通道。MCU表达异常可引起线粒体钙稳态失衡,最终导致线粒体功能紊乱。本研究旨在明确敲低MCU对AD海马神经元和模型小鼠学习记忆功能的影响。以慢病毒和腺相关病毒为载体转染sh RNA,分别干扰海马神经元(HT22细胞)和淀粉样前体蛋白(amyloid precursor protein, APP)/早老素1 (presenilin 1, PS1)/tau AD转基因小鼠海马MCU表达,用MTS法检测HT22细胞活性,用Y迷宫和Morris水迷宫实验检测APP/PS1/tau转基因小鼠学习记忆功能障碍的变化。结果显示,MCU低表达可以逆转β淀粉样蛋白1-42 (amyloid beta protein 1-42, Aβ1-42)或冈田酸(okadaic acid, OA)...     

硒代蛋氨酸对Aβ_(1-42)诱导N2a细胞损伤的保护作用

探索硒代蛋氨酸(Se-Met)的早期干预对Aβ1-42诱导的Neuro-2A(N2a)细胞损伤的保护作用。将N2a细胞分为对照组、Aβ1-42诱导损伤组、Se-Met组和Se-Met预处理的Aβ1-42组,CCK-8法检测显示不同浓度Se-Met对N2a细胞活力的影响不同,且Se-Met能减弱Aβ1-42诱导N2a细胞活力的降低(P0.01);DCFH-DA标记检测可见Se-Met预处理明显抑制Aβ1-42引起的N2a细胞内总活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)水平增高,Aβ1-42作用24 h组效果更显著(P0.05);Western blot检测发现,Se-Met可显著回升Aβ1-42引起的N2a细胞synaptophysin和PSD95水平的降低(P0.05;P0.05);同时,Se-Met可显著降低Aβ1-42引起的N2a细胞内LC3-II/LC3-I水平的升高(P0.05)。因此,Se-Met在一定作用时间和浓度下可以提高N2a细胞的活力,对Aβ1-42引起的N2a细胞ROS水平增高、自噬均有抑制作用,同时缓解Aβ1-42引起的突触损伤;Se-Met对Aβ1-42诱导N2a细胞损伤具有较好的保护作用。     

Complement System Activation by Amyloid Aggregates of Aβ(1-40) and Aβ(1-42) Peptides: Facts and Hypotheses

Biophysics - Abstract—Here, we consider the problem of the activation of the complement system by amyloid aggregates, in particular, amyloid fibrils of the Aβ(1-40) and Aβ(1-42)...     

银杏叶提取物对β-淀粉样蛋白致阿尔茨海默病模型大鼠学习记忆的影响及其作用机制研究

目的:研究银杏叶提取物(EGB)对β-淀粉样蛋白(β-amyloid protein,Aβ)致阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease,AD)模型大鼠学习记忆能力的影响及其作用机制。方法:用Y迷宫测定Aβ致AD大鼠学习记忆能力,苏木素-伊红(HE)染色,TUNEL法和免疫组化染色法分别检测其海马CA1区细胞形态学变化,神经元凋亡,Caspase-3P20的表达及Aβ的沉积,并观察EGB的保护作用。结果:Aβ致AD大鼠学习尝试次数明显增加,记忆正确次数明显减少;海马CA1区锥体细胞层损伤严重,可见到较多TUNEL和Caspase-3P20阳性神经元及Aβ阳性物质沉积。而银杏叶各剂量组均有不同程度的改善。结论:Aβ可引起β-淀粉样蛋白致AD大鼠海马CA1区神经元的凋亡,Caspase-3的激活参与了这一过程,而EGb有保护作用并能改善其学习记忆障碍。     

Tau pathogenesis is promoted by Aβ1-42 but not Aβ1-40

Background

The relationship between the pathogenic amyloid β-peptide species Aβ1–42 and tau pathology has been well studied and suggests that Aβ1–42 can accelerate tau pathology in vitro and in vivo. The manners if any in which Aβ1–40 interacts with tau remains poorly understood. In order to answer this question, we used cell-based system, transgenic fly and transgenic mice as models to study the interaction between Aβ1–42 and Aβ1–40.

Results

In our established cellular model, live cell imaging (using confocal microscopy) combined with biochemical data showed that exposure to Aβ1–42 induced cleavage, phosphorylation and aggregation of wild-type/full length tau while exposure to Aβ1–40 didn’t. Functional studies with Aβ1–40 were carried out in tau-GFP transgenic flies and showed that Aβ1–42, as previously reported, disrupted cytoskeletal structure while Aβ1–40 had no effect at same dose. To further explore how Aβ1–40 affects tau pathology in vivo, P301S mice (tau transgenic mice) were injected intracerebrally with either Aβ1–42 or Aβ1–40. We found that treatment with Aβ1–42 induced tau phosphorylation, cleavage and aggregation of tau in P301S mice. By contrast, Aβ1–40 injection didn’t alter total tau, phospho-tau (recognized by PHF-1) or cleavage of tau, but interestingly, phosphorylation at Ser²⁶² was shown to be significantly decreased after direct inject of Aβ1–40 into the entorhinal cortex of P301S mice.

Conclusions

These results demonstrate that Aβ1–40 plays different role in tau pathogenesis compared to Aβ1–42. Aβ1–40 may have a protective role in tau pathogenesis by reducing phosphorylation at Ser²⁶², which has been shown to be neurotoxic.

     

Quantitation of amyloid beta peptides Aβ(1-38), Aβ(1-40), and Aβ(1-42) in human cerebrospinal fluid by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Critical events in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) involve an imbalance between the production and clearance of amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides from the brain. Current methods for Aβ quantitation rely heavily on immuno-based techniques. However, these assays require highly specific antibodies and reagents that are time-consuming and expensive to develop. Immuno-based assays are also characterized by poor dynamic ranges, cross-reactivity, matrix interferences, and dilution linearity problems. In particular, noncommercial immunoassays are especially subject to high intra- and interassay variability because they are not subject to more stringent manufacturing controls. Combinations of these factors make immunoassays more labor-intensive and often challenging to validate in support of clinical studies. Here we describe a mixed-mode solid-phase extraction method and an ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (SPE UPLC–MS/MS) assay for the simultaneous quantitation of Aβ_1–38, Aβ_1–40, and Aβ_1–42 from human cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Negative ion versus positive ion species were compared using their corresponding multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) transitions, and negative ions were approximately 1.6-fold greater in intensity but lacked selectivity in matrix. The positive ion MRM assay was more than sufficient to quantify endogenous Aβ peptides. Aβ standards were prepared in artificial CSF containing 5% rat plasma, and quality control samples were prepared in three pooled CSF sources. Extraction efficiency was greater than 80% for all three peptides, and the coefficient of variation during analysis was less than 15% for all species. Mean basal levels of Aβ species from three CSF pools were 1.64, 2.17, and 1.26 ng/ml for Aβ_1–38; 3.24, 3.63, and 2.55 ng/ml for Aβ_1–40; and 0.50, 0.63, and 0.46 ng/ml for Aβ_1–42.     

卡介苗对老年性痴呆模型小鼠学习记忆和脑内Aβ的影响

目的通过检测卡介苗对阿尔茨海默症(AD)模型小鼠学习记忆等行为和脑内Aβ的影响,探索卡介苗治疗阿尔茨海默症的可能性。方法 12周龄的C57BL/6小鼠随机分成3组,每组8只,分别为生理盐水对照组(NS)、D-半乳糖和亚硝酸钠AD模型组、卡介苗组(105CFU),对各组小鼠作体征记录并统计小鼠体重的变化情况。水迷宫检测小鼠的学习记忆能力。通过ELISA检测小鼠脑内Aβ蛋白的含量,同时采用免疫荧光染色检测小鼠脑内Aβ斑块的沉积情况。结果与对照组相比,AD模型组体重增幅较小,学习记忆能力下降,脑内可检测到Aβ蛋白和斑块;经过卡介苗处理的AD小鼠,其学习记忆能力的受损得到改善,同时小鼠脑内Aβ含量较AD模型组下降。结论卡介苗能改善AD模型小鼠的学习记忆功能,降低小鼠脑内Aβ沉积,可能在AD疾病的治疗中发挥作用。     

构树黄酮对小鼠学习记忆的影响(英文)

Morris水迷宫在啮齿目动物的空间学习与记忆的研究中被广泛使用。研究表明摄食抗氧化剂能够增强空间学习与记忆能力。本文目的在于研究构树黄酮对昆明小鼠的空间学习与记忆能力的影响。用构树黄酮固体脂质纳米粒对小鼠灌胃4周,然后进行Morris水迷宫测试。与对照组相比,实验组小鼠的各项指标均有显著改善。这表明构树黄酮能显著增强小鼠的空间学习与记忆能力。同时研究还表明构树黄酮对小鼠的生长发育没有影响。     

MPTP致空间学习记忆障碍小鼠脑内NSF表达变化

目的:观察1-甲基-4-苯基-1,2,3,6-四氢吡啶(MPTP)致空间学习记忆障碍小鼠脑内N-乙基马来酰亚胺敏感融合蛋白(NSF)表达变化。方法:C57BL/6J小鼠随机分为2组(n=24),包括对照组和MPTP处理组,雌雄各半。MPTP处理组给予C57BL/6J小鼠MPTP(20 mg/0.2 ml/(kg·d),s.c.)连续8 d,每天一次,对照组给予等量的生理盐水用同样方法处理。第9天起采用水迷宫实验,连续4 d检测C57BL/6J小鼠空间学习记忆的改变,水迷宫实验测试结束后,采用免疫组化和Western blot方法检测小鼠脑内NSF表达改变。结果:每组选取小鼠24只进行水迷宫测试,与对照组相比,MPTP处理组小鼠出现空间学习记忆障碍;每组选取小鼠5只进行免疫组化检测,同时每组选取5只小鼠进行Western blot检测,海马CA1区NSF免疫反应活性明显减弱(P0.01),前额叶皮层NSF的免疫反应活性(P0.01)和蛋白表达(P0.05)都明显增高。结论:MPTP致空间学习记忆障碍小鼠脑内NSF表达出现异常,可能参与MPTP致空间学习记忆障碍的发病机制。     

γ-Secretase complexes containing caspase-cleaved presenilin-1 increase intracellular Aβ(42) /Aβ(40) ratio

Markers for caspase activation and apoptosis have been shown in brains of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients and AD-mouse models. In neurons, caspase activation is associated with elevated amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) production. Caspases cleave numerous substrates including presenilin-1 (PS1). The cleavage takes place in the large cytosolic loop of PS1-C-terminal fragment (PS1CTF), generating a truncated PS1CTF lacking half of the loop domain (caspCTF). The loop has been shown to possess important regulatory functions with regard to Aβ(40) and Aβ(42) production. Previously, we have demonstrated that γ-secretase complexes are active during apoptosis regardless of caspase cleavage in the PS1CTF-loop. Here, a PS1/PS2-knockout mouse blastocyst-derived cell line was used to establish stable or transient cell lines expressing either caspCTF or full-length CTF (wtCTF). We show that caspCTF restores γ-secretase activity and forms active γ-secretase complexes together with Nicastrin, Pen-2, Aph-1 and PS1-N-terminal fragment. Further, caspCTF containing γ-secretase complexes have a sustained capacity to cleave amyloid precursor protein (APP) and Notch, generating APP and Notch intracellular domain, respectively. However, when compared to wtCTF cells, caspCTF cells exhibit increased intracellular production of Aβ(42) accompanied by increased intracellular Aβ(42) /Aβ(40) ratio without changing the Aβ secretion pattern. Similarly, induction of apoptosis in wtCTF cells generate a similar shift in intracellular Aβ pattern with increased Aβ(42) /Aβ(40) ratio. In summary, we show that caspase cleavage of PS1 generates a γ-secretase complex that increases the intracellular Aβ(42) /Aβ(40) ratio. This can have implications for AD pathogenesis and suggests caspase inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents.     

The Recombinant Amyloid-β Peptide Aβ1-42 Aggregates Faster and Is More Neurotoxic than Synthetic Aβ1-42

Aggregation of the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide is considered a central event in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In order to bypass methodological bias related to a variety of impurities commonly present in typical preparations of synthetic Aβ, we developed a simple, generally applicable method for recombinant production of human Aβ and Aβ variants in Escherichia coli that provides milligram quantities of Aβ in very high purity and yield. Amyloid fibril formation in vitro by human Aβ1-42, the key amyloidogenic Aβ species in AD, was completed threefold faster with recombinant Aβ1-42 compared to synthetic preparations. In addition, recombinant Aβ1-42 was significantly more toxic to cultured rat primary cortical neurons, and it was more toxic in vivo, as shown by strongly increased induction of abnormal phosphorylation of tau and tau aggregation into neurofibrillary tangles in brains of P301L tau transgenic mice. We conclude that even small amounts of impurities in synthetic Aβ—including a significant fraction of racemized peptides that cannot be avoided due to the technical limitations of peptide synthesis—prevent or slow Aβ incorporation into the regular quaternary structure of growing β-amyloid fibrils. The results validate the use of recombinant Aβ1-42 for both in vitro and in vivo studies addressing the mechanisms underlying Aβ aggregation and its related biological consequences for the pathophysiology, therapy, and prevention of AD.     

Aβ(39-42) modulates Aβ oligomerization but not fibril formation

Recently, certain C-terminal fragments (CTFs) of Aβ42 have been shown to be effective inhibitors of Aβ42 toxicity. Here, we examine the interactions between the shortest CTF in the original series, Aβ(39-42), and full-length Aβ. Mass spectrometry results indicate that Aβ(39-42) binds directly to Aβ monomers and to the n = 2, 4, and 6 oligomers. The Aβ42:Aβ(39-42) complex is further probed using molecular dynamics simulations. Although the CTF was expected to bind to the hydrophobic C-terminus of Aβ42, the simulations show that Aβ(39-42) binds at several locations on Aβ42, including the C-terminus, other hydrophobic regions, and preferentially in the N-terminus. Ion mobility-mass spectrometry (IM-MS) and electron microscopy experiments indicate that Aβ(39-42) disrupts the early assembly of full-length Aβ. Specifically, the ion-mobility results show that Aβ(39-42) prevents the formation of large decamer/dodecamer Aβ42 species and, moreover, can remove these structures from solution. At the same time, thioflavin T fluorescence and electron microscopy results show that the CTF does not inhibit fibril formation, lending strong support to the hypothesis that oligomers and not amyloid fibrils are the Aβ form responsible for toxicity. The results emphasize the role of small, soluble assemblies in Aβ-induced toxicity and suggest that Aβ(39-42) inhibits Aβ-induced toxicity by a unique mechanism, modulating early assembly into nontoxic hetero-oligomers, without preventing fibril formation.     

Aβ-Cu(Ⅱ)复合物与阿尔茨海默病的关系

β-淀粉样肽(amyloid peptide β,Aβ)在脑内沉积并与Cu(Ⅱ)螯合形成AB—Cu(Ⅱ)复合物,该复合物诱导活性氧形成并造成神经细胞损伤,这可能是阿尔茨海默病(AD)发生与发展的主要机制之一;以此为基础．探讨使用抗氧化剂及金属螯合剂降低Aβ神经毒性,可能是探索预防AD发生和减缓AD发展的一个新途径。     

Membrane interactions and the effect of metal ions of the amyloidogenic fragment Aβ(25-35) in comparison to Aβ(1-42)

Aβ(1−42) peptide, found as aggregated species in Alzheimer's disease brain, is linked to the onset of Alzheimer's disease. Many reports have linked metals to inducing Aβ aggregation and amyloid plaque formation. Aβ(25-35), a fragment from the C-terminal end of Aβ(1−42), lacks the metal coordinating sites found in the full-length peptide and is neurotoxic to cortical cortex cell cultures. We report solid-state NMR studies of Aβ(25-35) in model lipid membrane systems of anionic phospholipids and cholesterol, and compare structural changes to those of Aβ(1-42). When added after vesicle formation, Aβ(25-35) was found to interact with the lipid headgroups and slightly perturb the lipid acyl-chain region; when Aβ(25-35) was included during vesicle formation, it inserted deeper into the bilayer. While Aβ(25-35) retained the same β-sheet structure irrespective of the mode of addition, the longer Aβ(1-42) appeared to have an increase in β-sheet structure at the C-terminus when added to phospholipid liposomes after vesicle formation. Since the Aβ(25-35) fragment is also neurotoxic, the full-length peptide may have more than one pathway for toxicity.