Attacks of bloodsucking biting midges on birds in the forests of Prikam'ia]

63 nests of 11 species of birds were examined in the mid-taiga forests of Prikamje from 1971 to 1973. 710 specimens of midges were caught within this period. 8 species of midges attacked birds. Of them the most abundant was Culicoides cubitalis Edw. (62.8%). Rather numerous were C. sajanicus Mirz. (14.9%) and C. reconditus C. et P.-C (11.9%). The other species were few in number or rare. In closed nests C. reconditus C. et P.-C. (42.1%) prevailed. One fourth of caught females were with blood (26.9%). The highest per cent of engorged females was found in C. sajanicus Mirz. (58.3%).     

Determinants of abundance and effects of blood-sucking flying insects in the nest of a hole-nesting bird

Compared to non-flying nest-dwelling ectoparasites, the biology of most species of flying ectoparasites and its potential impact on avian hosts is poorly known and rarely, if ever, reported. In this study we explore for the first time the factors that may affect biting midge (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) and black fly (Diptera: Simuliidae) abundances in the nest cavity of a bird, the hole-nesting blue tit Cyanistes caeruleus, and report their effects on adults and nestlings during reproduction. The abundance of biting midges was positively associated with nest mass, parental provisioning effort and abundance of blowflies and black flies, while negatively associated with nestling condition. Furthermore, a medication treatment to reduce blood parasitaemias in adult birds revealed that biting midges were more abundant in nests of females whose blood parasitaemias were experimentally reduced. This finding would be in accordance with these insect vectors attacking preferentially uninfected or less infected hosts to increase their own survival. The abundance of black flies in the population was lower than that of biting midges and increased in nests with later hatching dates. No significant effect of black fly abundance on adult or nestling condition was detected. Blood-sucking flying insects may impose specific, particular selection pressures on their hosts and more research is needed to better understand these host–parasite associations.     

Blood-sucking midges of the floodplain of the Sylva River (Ceratopogonidae)

21 species of bloodsuckling midges were recorded from the Kishert region of the Perm district. During the period of investigation the group obsoletus was most abundant, then the group pulicaris and fascipennis. There was noted a poor adaptation of midges to different biotopes and high ecological plasticity of mass species. Specific composition of midges attacking man and domestic animals is more diverse as compared to species attacking birds. Food specialisation is more distinct in ornithophilous species.     

The Size and Layout of Waders’ Nests in the Yakutia Tundra (Nizhnekolymsk District)

Studies were carried out in Yakutia (Nizhnekolymsk district) from May 15–20 to August 5–20 in 1984, 1985, 1987, 1988, and 1990. A total of 308 nests of ten wader species were found and described. The sizes of the waders’ nests correspond to those of the birds. The smaller wader species have heavier nests. The nests located in wet habitats are masked to a greater extent; they are deeper and have a thicker litter. The larger species, in which both parents incubate eggs, have the most open nests; these species breed in relatively dry habitats. The nests of small species, in which only one parent incubates eggs, are better equipped and masked; these birds breed in wetter sites. The location, shelters, and layouts of nests are related to the social organization of the species, namely, to the number of the birds incubating eggs.     

Arthropods in the nests of lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina)

In 2001–2007, altogether 57 nests of lesser spotted eagle were collected in the Orava region in northwestern Slovakia and four groups of arthropods were extracted from them. Richest in number of species and individuals were mites (23 species, 17,500 ind.), followed by beetles (12 species, 725 ind.), whereas pseudoscorpions were represented only by Pselaphochernes scorpioides (39 ind.) and fleas by Ceratophyllus garei (3 ind.). Unlike nests of other birds, free-living mites predominated in the nests fauna (83% of individuals), followed by nidicolous species with more or less free relationship to the nests, while parasitic species represented only a negligible part of the fauna. For the first time we observed phoresy of Nenteria pandioni, a specific and abundant mite in the eagles’ nests, on the nidicolous staphylinid Haploglossa puncticollis. The beetle fauna in the nests was much poorer than in nests of other birds. The predatory H. puncticollis was dominant in the nests (83%) and occurred continuously during the whole investigation period. Other beetles, even the widely distributed nidicols such as the histerid Gnathoncus buyssoni, were found rarely in nests. Predators were also the only abundant trophic group of beetles in the nests, while other trophic groups of beetles abundantly co-occur in nests of majority of other birds. The occurrence of all beetles was very unevenly distributed during the investigation period, but was positively correlated with occurrence of mites. The relatively low number of species and individuals of mites and beetles in the lesser spotted eagle nests resulted from their position on tree tops, at a height of 20–30 m and their quick drying out by sun and wind. It was also indicated by an enormously low number of species and individuals of mycetophagous beetles, which represent a significant component of the fauna in nests of other birds.     

The effect of investigators on the breeding success of royal,Eudyptes schlegeli,and rockhopper penguins,E. chrysocome,at Macquarie Island

The impact on reproductive success of investigators studying the breeding biology of royal and rockhopper penguins was assessed. Control and experimental transects were established in a colony of each species and the number of active nests, from egg laying to creche stage, were compared. Experimental nests were those used in breeding biology work, where birds were measured and banded, and nest checks were carried out at least once per week. Control nests were in equivalent locations but birds were not handled, and no contact was made with the nests once breeding had begun. There were no significant differences in the number of active nests between the control and experimental transects (and, therefore, breeding success) in either species. It is concluded that, provided care is taken when working with these species, no impacts on the short-term (up to creche stage, in one breeding season) breeding success of these populations will occur.     

Mesostigmatic mites (Acari: Mesostigmata) in nests of the Eurasian griffon vulture (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Gyps fulvus</Emphasis>) in Croatia

We examined the species composition and community structure of mites of the order Mesostigmata (Acari) in nests of the Eurasian griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus Hablizl, 1783) in Croatia. Material collected from 18 nests included 565 mites belonging to seven species. The most abundant species were Leiodinychus orbicularis (C.L. Koch, 1839) (Trematuridae) and Androlaelaps casalis (Berlese, 1887) (Laelapidae). The results were compared with the community structure and frequency of dominant species of Mesostigmata in nests of 32 other bird species. Leiodinychus orbicularis occurred in the nests of 13 species of birds. It is a typical nidicolous species which occurs most frequently in the perennial nests of birds of prey. In contrast, A. casalis rarely occurs in the nests of birds of prey.     

Driving forces behind the fluctuating growth of the number of successful nests in an inland population of white-tailed eagles in Hokkaido,Japan

This study aimed to describe the change in the number of successful nests of the white-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla, for 25 years (1997–2021) along the Teshio River (100 km), Japan, which is a new habitat for this endangered species and identify factors driving the number of nests. The number of nests grew from two to nine. The logistic function fitted in well with the growth, and the capacity of the study area sustaining the successful nests was estimated at 6.5. The precipitation in January and April explained the deviation of the observed values from the model prediction. In particular, heavy rain in April was associated with low numbers. Forty-six nest remains were collected from 17 nest locations. Twelve genera of birds, six genera of mammals, and four genera of fishes were identified. Fish and bird items occupied 93.6% of prey individuals. The fish proportion was similar between high-performance years when the observed number of successful nests was higher than the model prediction and low-performance years with a lower number than the prediction (55.2% and 51.0%). However, it was higher in the nests with two fledglings (63.0%) than those with a single fledgling (41.5%). The nearest neighbor distance (NND) of the successful nests declined with the increase in the number of nests. Based on territory size (the mean NND = 7.8 km), the study area can hold 13 nests. The process and mechanism of the dynamics of the number of nests were discussed, focusing on territoriality and weather effects.     

Thermophilous fungi of birds' nests

Summary Twenty seven species of thermophilous fungi were found on plant debris in the nests of twelve passerine bird species in Nottinghamshire of whichDactylomyces thermophilus, Humicola insolens, Penicillium duponti, Stilbella thermophila andTorula thermophila are new records for Britain.Certain species, such asAspergillus fumigatus, Chaetomium thermophile, Coprinus delicatulus, Humicola insolens, Thermoidium sulphureum andThermomyces languinosus were present in most of the 54 nests surveyed, usually at a high frequency.The species populations of thermophilous nest fungi are similar to those on plant debris on the soil surface and in the grassland vegetation. They are closely related to thermophilous floras known from various composts. The relatively high frequency of strictly thermophilic species found on organic debris of the various nests indicates that nests are warmed up by the birds while using the nests, and, probably, also by the sun and air during the summer months.The number of thermophilous species and their frequency on the plant debris of the nests varies considerably in the twelve bird species. The number of species as well as their frequency was exceptionally low in Sandmartin's nests but the nests of Blackbird, Hedge Sparrow and of the Thrushes were rich in thermophilous fungi.All the 27 thermophilous fungi recorded from the birds' nests may be regarded a) as saprophytes with no known harmful relationships to birds and other animals, such asAllescheria terrestris, Botryotrichum species,Chaetomium thermophile, Coprinus delicatulus, Humicola insolens, Penicillium duponti, Sporotrichum thermophile, Stilbella thermophila, Thermoidium sulphureum, Thielavia sepedonium andTorula thermophila, or b) as saprophytes on the plant debris of the nests but with known potential pathogenicity to birds, other animals and man, e.g.,Absidia ramosa, Aspergillus fumigatus, A. terreus, Dendrostilbella boydii (=conidialAllescheria boydii),Emericella nidulans, Endomyces lactis, Mucor pusillus, Paecilomyces varioti, Rhizopus arrhizus, R. cohnii andThermomyces lanuginosus.     

Aspergillus fumigatus and Other Thermophilic Fungi in Nests of Wetland Birds

A study was performed on the numbers and species diversity of thermophilic fungi (growing at 45 °C in vitro) in 38 nests of 9 species of wetland birds, taking into account the physicochemical properties of the nests and the bird species. It was found that in nests with the maximum weight (nests of Mute Swan), the number and diversity of thermophilic fungi were significantly greater than in other nests, with lower weight. The diversity of the thermophilic biota was positively correlated with the individual mass of bird and with the level of phosphorus in the nests. The dominant species within the mycobiota under study was Aspergillus fumigatus which inhabited 95 % of the nests under study, with average frequency of ca. 650 cfu g^?1 of dry mass of the nest material. In a majority of the nests studied (nests of 7 bird species), the share of A. fumigatus exceeded 50 % of the total fungi growing at 45 °C. Significantly higher frequencies of the fungal species were characteristic of the nests of small and medium-sized piscivorous species, compared with the other bird species. The number of A. fumigatus increased with increase in the moisture level of the nests, whereas the frequency of occurrence of that opportunistic pathogen, opposite to the general frequency of thermophilic mycobiota, was negatively correlated with the level of phosphorus in the nest material, and with the body mass and length of the birds. The authors indicate the causes of varied growth of thermophilic fungi in nests of wetland birds and, in particular, present a discussion of the causes of accumulation of A. fumigatus, the related threats to the birds, and its role as a source of transmission in the epidemiological chain of aspergillosis.     

Breeding biology and longevity of Russet-crowned Motmots in central Mexico

ABSTRACT.   Motmots, with their distinctive racketed-tails, represent one of the most easily recognized tropical birds, yet little is known about the basic natural history of most species in the family Momotidae. We report basic breeding biology and longevity of Russet-crowned Motmots ( Momotus mexicanus ), a medium-sized Neotropical bird that ranges from northwest Mexico to central Guatemala. We monitored nest success of eight pairs from 1 May to 17 July 1998 in tropical deciduous forests in central Mexico. Motmots laid an average of 4.1 eggs and incubated for approximately 20 d. Four of eight nests fledged young. Of these four nests, average hatching success was 69% and average fledgling success was 56%. The mean duration of the nestling period at three nests was 33.7 d. Based on the recapture of one individual bird in April 2008, we provide a longevity estimate that Russet-crowned Motmots can survive at least 11 yr in the wild. These data on nesting success and longevity add to our limited knowledge of the natural history of this understudied species.     

Interacting effects of aromatic plants and female age on nest-dwelling ectoparasites and blood-sucking flies in avian nests

Some avian species incorporate aromatic plants to their nests. The "nest protection hypothesis", which posits that volatile secondary compounds contained in these plants may have antiparasite properties, has not received full support. All previous tests of this hypothesis have only considered effects on nest-dwelling ectoparasites, but not on blood-sucking flies. The "drug hypothesis" posits that aromatic plants may stimulate nestling immune system, development, or condition. We tested these hypotheses experimentally in wild blue tits, Cyanistes caeruleus, a species that adds aromatic plants to their nests. We supplemented aromatic plants to half of a sample of nests, while adding grass to the other half of nests. We quantified abundance of two groups of blood-sucking flies (blackflies and biting midges) at two different stages of the reproductive period, and abundance of three nest-dwelling ectoparasites (fleas, mites, and blowflies). Experimental supplementation of aromatic plants reduced abundance of fleas only in nests of yearling females and not in nests of older females. Blackflies and biting midges were both more numerous in nests of yearling females than in nests of older females. Mass of aromatic plants added by females was negatively related with abundance of fleas in control nests but not in experimental nests supplied with aromatic plants. Mass of plants added by females was also positively related with abundance of blackflies during the nestling stage. Finally, aromatic plants did not affect nestling growth or immune responses. We conclude that several factors such as female experience and their ability to add plants to the nest interact to explain effects of aromatic plants on different parasites.     

Notes on New Zealand mammals 8. Predation on nesting southern royal albatrosses Diomedea epomophora by a New Zealand sea lion Phocarctos hookeri

Abstract

This note documents unusual predation of southern royal albatrosses Diomedea epomophora on land by an individual New Zealand sea lion Phocarctos hookeri. During a survey of albatross nests on Campbell Island in the New Zealand sub‐antarctic in January 2005, 128 corpses of adult albatrosses were found at or near nests within a 230 ha area. Flattened vegetation and flipper prints near the nests suggested sea lion predation, and subsequently a male sea lion was found near a line of freshly killed birds. The predation rate was estimated to be at least seven birds per day over a number of weeks; similar skeletal remains from the previous year were observed in a neighbouring area. The impact of one threatened species on another can be a dilemma for conservation managers. In this case, apparently only one male sea lion was involved and, because of the ongoing impact to the albatross population, permission was obtained to cull that individual on 17 January 2005. No further incidents were observed over the following three seasons (2006–08).     

Effects of Mesopredators on Nest Survival of Shrub-Nesting Songbirds

ABSTRACT Although nest predation is often the single largest source of mortality in avian populations, manipulative studies to determine predator impacts on nest survival are rare, particularly studies that examine impacts of mid-size mammalian predators (hereafter, mesopredators) on nest survival of shrub-nesting birds. We quantified nest survival and identified nest predators of shrub-nesting songbirds within 4 large (approx. 40-ha) exclosures and 4 control sites within a longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) ecosystem. During 2003–2006, we located and monitored 535 shrub nests (222 with videography) for 4,804 nest-days to quantify daily nest survival and document predation events. We found no support for a treatment effect, suggesting mesopredators had little impact on daily nest survival (0.9303 in controls and 0.9260 in exclosures) of shrub-nesting songbirds. For the 5 most commonly monitored species, daily nest survival within species was constant. Our analysis suggested that shrub nests were most vulnerable during the nestling stage and presence of cameras on nests increased survival with the increase in survival being more pronounced during the incubation stage. We filmed 107 nest predation events, identifying predators at 88 nests. Of these 88 nests, snakes caused 33%, red imported fire ants (hereafter fire ants, Solenopsis invicta) 28%, raptors 17%, corvids 8%, mesopredators 6%, and small mammals 8% of nest predations. Cause-specific nest predation in controls and exclosures did not differ from expectation, providing evidence that compensatory predation did not occur. Nest predators differed from expectation with regard to nest stage; fire ants and raptors only depredated nests during the nestling stage. Presence of cameras had no effect on nest abandonment. Fire ants were the most prevalent nest predator, and nest predation by fire ants was only observed on nestlings, potentially reducing likelihood of renesting. Magnitude and timing of fire ant predation suggests that fire ants may be the most influential nest predator of shrub-nesting birds within the longleaf pine ecosystem. Our data suggest that controlling mesopredators will have no effect on nest success of shrub-nesting birds within longleaf pine forests.     

Fleas from bird nests in southwestern Tuva

14 species of fleas were recorded from 173 nests of 47 species of birds. Most abundant of them are Ceratophyllus vagabundus, C. gallinae, C. borealis. The abundance of fleas was found to depend on season and hosts' habitat. The above species were most frequently encountered in nests in May. The high abundance index of fleas was registered in birds nesting in hollows, burrows of small mammals and in clefts of rocks.     

On the specificity of avian blood parasites: revealing specific and generalist relationships between haemosporidians and biting midges

The study of host-parasite relationships involving vector-borne parasites requires understanding interactions between parasites and vectors. The capacity of haemosporidians to infect insects has clear evolutionary consequences for the transmission of diseases. Here, we investigated (i) the associations between blood parasites, biting midges and birds and (ii) the potential specificity between biting midge and haemosporidian haplotypes. A total of 629 parous biting midges Culicoides and 224 wild birds (belonging to seven species) from a locality of central Spain were individually examined for the presence of Haemoproteus and Plasmodium parasites by sequencing a fragment of cytochrome B. Biting midges were identified morphologically and characterized on the basis of a fragment of the cytochrome c oxidase (COI) gene. Overall, 12 Haemoproteus and three Plasmodium haplotypes were isolated and sequenced. Among them, 10 haplotypes were exclusively isolated from biting midges, three haplotypes only from birds and two haplotypes from both biting midges and birds. Biting midge haplotypes showed both specific and generalist relationships with Haemoproteus haplotypes but only generalist relationships with Plasmodium haplotypes. Several C. festivipennis and C. kibunesis haplotypes established significant coevolutionary links with Haemoproteus haplotypes. These results shed light on the specificity of interactions between vectors and blood parasites.     

厦门大屿岛三种鹭的种群动态和营巢

对厦门大屿岛白鹭保护区的夜鹭（Nycticorax nycticorax）、白鹭（Eegrtta garzetta）和池鹭（Ardeola bacchus）进行种群动态和营巢观察研究。3种鸟的数量季节变化都很大,5～7月数量高峰期,每月总数都达5000只左右。5月底共5610只,3种鸟的比例分别为50.8%、32.0%和17.2%。4月开始大量在相思树梢上营巢,5月中至6月初巢数多达6000多个。结果表明,3种鸟都是厦门的繁殖鸟和留鸟。     

Floating bird nests provide resources for wildlife: ecological roles of vertebrates using <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aechmophorus</Emphasis> grebe nests at Clear Lake,California

Floating bird nests occur ephemerally in many wetlands, providing resources for wildlife, but the species using such nests and their ecological roles are poorly studied. Grebes (Podicipedidae) construct floating nests anchored to vegetation. During 2010–2017 we studied the vertebrates using nests of the colonially-nesting western grebe (Aechmophorus occidentalis) and Clark’s grebe (A. clarkii) at Clear Lake, California. In addition to both grebe species using each other’s nests for copulation and egg dumping, we identified 47 other species of vertebrates using Aechmophorus grebe nests, including one fish, one amphibian, two turtles, one snake, 39 birds, and three mammals. Ecological roles of vertebrates using grebe nests included: egg dumping (one bird); predation on grebe eggs, chicks, or adults (four birds and three mammals); scavenging on broken grebe eggs (five birds); resting (one amphibian, three reptiles, and 15 birds); foraging for non-avian prey on nests (13 birds) or in adjacent water (five birds); and incidental destruction of grebe eggs (one fish and two reptiles) and nests (many species). Floating grebe nests undergo a process of ecological succession. Egg dumping, predation, and scavenging occur during early stages of nest development and maintenance. Once abandoned, older nests are used for resting or foraging for prey in nearby water. Decomposing nests are colonized by arthropods which are preyed upon by birds. Because floating bird nests increase food web complexity by attracting aquatic, semiaquatic, and terrestrial organisms at all trophic levels, protecting the engineers and their nests should be considered a conservation priority by wetland managers.     

The functional significance of multiple nest-building in the Australian Reed Warbler Acrocephalus australis

The vast majority of bird species build a nest in which to breed. Some species build more than one nest, but the function of most multiple nest-building remains unclear. Here we describe the unusual nest-building behaviour of the Australian Reed Warbler Acrocephalus australis , and test experimentally the hypotheses that multiple nest-building is related to individual condition or territory quality, and plays a role in mate assessment. Australian Reed Warblers built two types of nest structures: 'type I' nests, which were used for eggs and nestlings, and 'type II' nests, which were structurally distinct from type I nests, did not support eggs, nestlings or adults and were not essential for successful breeding. The number of type II nests built in each territory varied. Type II nests were only built before breeding had commenced in a territory and females were not observed participating in their construction, supporting a role in female mate choice. Birds provided with supplementary food built significantly more type II nests than control birds. However, supplementary-fed birds did not have greater pairing success, and the addition of further type II nests to territories did not increase the pairing rate or type II nest construction in those territories. There was no relationship between the presence of type II nests and either reproductive success or likelihood of nest predation. We discuss the implications of these results in light of previous suggestions regarding the function of multiple nest-building in birds.     

Do artificial nests reveal relative nest predation risk for real nests?

Present knowledge of the effects of nest predation on spatial distribution, habitat selection and community structure of birds is to a large extent based on results from experiments with artificial nests. Although nest predation risk is likely to differ between artificial and real nests, most previous studies of nest predation using artificial nests have been lacking a proper control. We investigated whether predation rates on artificial nests predicted those on real nests by simultaneously comparing the fate of real and artificial nests (containing quail Coturnix coturnix and plasticine eggs) in 92 territories of the northern wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe in 1996. We also investigated whether risk for artificial nests was related to relative average risk for real nests in these territories (based on data collected two years before and two years after the experiment). Nest predation on artificial nests did predict relative predation risk for real nests only when quail egg depredation was used as the criterion for artificial nest predation. Despite plasticine egg depredation being the most common type of predation it was not associated with predation risk for real nests. Small mice and vole species dominated among cases with only plasticine egg depredation, while predatory mammals and snakes destroyed most quail eggs in artificial nests and most eggs in real wheatear nests. The results suggest that artificial nests may only predict the risk for real nests when the nest predator species are similar among the two types of nest. Furthermore, our data suggest that small mice and vole species rarely depredate nests of mid-sized passerine birds . Our results cast doubt on many previous conclusions based on experiments with artificial nests, since predation risk for such nests is likely to be uncorrelated with risk for real nests due to nest-type-specific differences in nest preying species.